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Post by Admin on Nov 27, 2016 20:55:50 GMT
It is known that white spots in the Kazakh history is no less than the black holes in astronomy. Poverty and often lack their own written sources do not allow historians to uncover the secrets of a plurality of white spots. In these circumstances, the role of an interdisciplinary approach to history, about which much has been said in recent years. A striking example of this approach was the identification of the remains of Abul Khair Khan. Since 1998, more than ten years of Kazakhstani scientists led by historian Serik Azhigali tried to find the grave of Abul Khair Khan. Although it was known that it is in the Aktobe region, in the area of Han Molas, but accurate landmarks were lost during the Soviet era. After years of searching for historians and archaeologists and soil scientists, paleobotanists, ethnographers, hundreds of graves of the necropolis burial Khan Molas three were identified that are most fit the description of the burial place of Abul Khair Khan, known from written sources. But then the case was deadlocked. In which of the three burial remains of Kazakh khan? Then the case took Kazakhstan biologists from the Institute of General Genetics and Cytology. Director of the Institute, PhD Dzhansugurov Leila says: - First, we have taken DNA tests from living descendants of Abul Khair Khan. Then there were isolated the DNA from bone remains of three tombs. Comparison and analysis of the samples and numerous control tests showed that only DNA object number 92 corresponds to the DNA of the descendants of the Khan. Then the research started anthropologists - the staff of the Budapest Museum of Natural History under the direction of Androsch Biro. They restored the skull real image of Kazakh khan, and also confirmed that the remains of the object number 92 on the similarity of age, height, body build match the descriptions of Abul Khair Khan. At the reburial of the remains of the khan in the burial remains of wood were found - the same exact reference point, which was previously known tomb of Khan. In 2015 in Aktobe was held a scientific conference on the results of the identification of Kazakh Khan and Khan Molas in the necropolis at the burial site of Khan stele erected a grandiose monument and shrine of Abul Khair Khan. - This successful experience of joint interdisciplinary research geneticists and historians have continued? - Yes. Moreover, on the basis of the Institute of General Genetics and Cytology in cooperation with the Institute of Archaeology named AH Margulan in 2014 created the laboratory of population genetics. Its purpose - to study the genetic structure of the modern population of Kazakhstan and determination of genetic relationships with the ancient nomadic tribes of Central Asia. To begin with, we have compiled a catalog available in Kazakhstan ancient human skeletal remains and valuable archaeological finds related to the ethnogenesis of the Kazakhs and paleogeneticheskih available for research. - What are the achievements of the Kazakhstan paleogenetics? - I note that the DNA analysis of bone remains of ancient tombs are very complex and expensive method. It requires high-tech equipment, supersterilnosti experiment and staff. Therefore, the selection of bone material is very important. The first thing we noticed on available for DNA analysis of artifacts representing the ancient settlement periods in Kazakhstan: a human skull from Botai settlement in northern Kazakhstan, the skeleton of the Hun period from the Natural History Museum (Budapest) and the remains of the so-called Urdzhar princess. As is known, in 2014 Urjar district of East Kazakhstan region in one of the mounds, caught up in road reconstruction zone Taskesken - Bhakti, neograblenoe burial women Saka time was found. Under the bulk of the mound in a stone sarcophagus contained the remains of a young woman of noble birth. Analysis of ancient DNA has shown that the age of discovery - 3rd-4th century BC, and mtDNA haplogroup Urdzhar Princess - D4o. Haplogroup refers to the "Asian branch" that has left a mark in the Eastern Altai, Siberia, the Far North Eurasia and among Native Americans. Mother-founder of this haplogroup lived between 9300 - 18,400 years ago in North Asia. As for the ancient Hun from Hungary, dating back to the middle third of the 5th century, the type of burial and equipment showed that this young man belonged to Hun elite and perhaps was associated with the origin of the ancient Turkic tribes of Kazakhstan. DNA analysis of ancient Hun skeleton identified haplogroup L Y-chromosome and mtDNA D4j12, which is evidence of the Asian origin of the paternal and maternal lines of ancient finds from Europe. And, what is most interesting: his Y-chromosome type (L-haplogroup) was found in the Kazakh Argynov!
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Post by Admin on Nov 29, 2016 20:49:16 GMT
Exploring the skull structure, we have established that it is a man, his mtDNA haplogroup - K1b2, which has the Eastern European origin and is very common in the modern population of Western Europe and America. - The most interesting - his Y-chromosome. - Unfortunately, haplogroup on the Y-chromosome, we have not had time to install. We ran out of expensive reagents and the money allocated for research. In addition, we have assembled a genetic bank, representing the modern population of Kazakhstan, so the ethnic picture of today we can compare with the ancient findings. This is what we will work on. - It is interesting. Tell us about the discovery. - The Kazakhs are very strong tribal traditions and knowledge of the developed legend.Paternal ancestry drawn through the male line, and each subgenus and genus has his ancestor at the appropriate level, and as part of the tribe - the total of the legendary founding father. It was very tempting to compare generic with the analysis of markers of the Y-chromosome of members of the same genus. Previously, I, as a historian, skeptical to the names of legendary ancestors. Still, it's an oral tradition, and in the course of transmission from generation to generation are inevitable errors, omissions, distortions, some points could be devised. All this is true, but nevertheless, it was found that the genetic data generally confirm paternal ancestry. We tested most of the major Kazakh tribes: Argynov, Naiman, alshinov, Adaev, Kipchak, Repeater, Tabyn, most tribes Uly Juz. DNA analysis of Y-chromosome indicates that members of the same genus-tribe have basically a similar dominant haplogroup and haplotype. Their genetic lines converge in the 20-25th generation one ancestor who lived about 500-1000 years ago. And it was a real person! Most often it is known from historical data emirs khans of the Golden Horde, who lived in the 13th-15th centuries. But there are exceptions, when the ancestor age points to the pre-Mongol era, such as in Konyrat and Uysun, or for an initial period of the Kazakh Khanate. DNA analysis results largely coincide with those of tribal legend. At the same time, they make it possible to delineate the boundaries of credibility each individual race. The discovery lies in the fact that the Kazakh legend, despite the oral nature, are reliable historical source, and the legendary founders of most of the tribes - a real historical person. - And what says DNA analysis for the local Argynovs? - We counted 11 versions of the origin of Argynovs. They mainly relate to geographical names in Mongolia, the Far East, the North Caucasus or the historical character of the Argun Hulaguid state. However, testing Argynovs revealed a startling fact - about 80 percent of the tested Argyn representatives belong to haplogroup G1. The fact that, according to the previously known genetic data, the origin of this haplogroup is associated with populations inhabiting northern Iran about five thousand years ago (before the arrival of the ancient Persians). From this fact stems the conclusion that the ancestral home Argynov can be neither Mongolia nor in the Caucasus. Ancestors Argynov came to Kazakhstan not before 3000 years ago with the North of Iran - Afghanistan. In addition to DNA analysis data and historical data indirectly indicate the tribes of the argument as the locals of South Kazakhstan Karakhanids era (is the X century). Perhaps stress, maybe it Turkified Qarluqs Sogdians. Of course, this version requires further experimental verification. - It is interesting that, according to the ancient Avesta, Iranians ancestors lived on the territory of Kazakhstan. If Argynov ancestors lived in Iran, it turns out that they are reversed, and migrated to the modern habitat. - Maybe you are right. Targeted DNA testing residents of the North-East of Iran, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan will allow to clarify the problem of migration of the ancient tribes with haplogroup G1. This is a matter of the near future. But while all the lines Kazakh Argynov shrink in the XIV century to their progenitor, which can be compared with the legendary Akzhol bey. His son Karahodzha - it is a historical figure, mentioned in many medieval written sources. He was the emir at Tokhtamysh Khan. - What are the other results of our DNA project? - We found a lot. About every family I came out a separate article. They can be found on the Internet. - Try to be very brief. - For example, by comparing Argynov haplotypes, we calculated their ancestor. He was a man by the name of Aday, who really existed and lived around the 1470s. They are divided into two tribes - Alimuly and Baiul. But their haplotypes suggest that this single tribe, leading descended from a single ancestor. In my opinion, it comes from Alchi-Tatars, who are mentioned in The Secret History of the Mongols of Genghis Khan as opponents. But most of the tribes happen to be just from Mongolian Nirun - Genghis Khan's relatives. All of us are a little family So, it turns out that the Kazakh tribes in the male line (on the Y-chromosome) have different origins. That is how the Kazakhs have a common ancestor of the people there. This suggests that the Kazakhs as a nation formed from various Turkic, Siberian, Aryan and Mongolian tribes. But they are self-existing and internally a single community. As Nurbol Baymuhan says: "You can not absolute Y-chromosome markers. DNA analysis of the more common autosomal markers shows that the Kazaks very homogeneous people, are very closely related and similar to each other. At the same time all the Kazakhs about the same ratio of genetic markers: markers represented 36 percent of Siberia, 26 per cent - is South-East Asia, 22 per cent - Europe, 16 percent - the Middle East." So, as a joke - all Kazakhs are related to one another. But this is not a universal kinship through the male line, and maternal. By paternal relatives of only one kind of members and the tribe. Well, if you remember the Cro-Magnon Mammoth Steppe in the previous article, it turns out that we all have a little family in Eurasia.
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Post by Admin on Dec 25, 2018 17:59:56 GMT
Temujin was born into the Borjigin clan as a son of Yesugei, who was a grandson of Khabul (or Qabul) Khan (King in the Mongolian language), the first khan of the Khamag Mongol confederation. In 1206, Temujin annexed and unified many Mongol-Turkic nomadic tribes of Northeast Asia, and was then crowned the “Genghis Khan (the supreme king in the Mongolian language)” at a Kurultai, a general council of Mongol chiefs [1]. After founding the Mongol Empire, Genghis Khan invaded neighboring lands outward from the Mongolian plateau, ultimately conquering most of Eurasia. The Mongol Empire expanded to be the largest contiguous land empire in human history, covering the area from Eastern Europe to the East Sea/the Sea of Japan. The vast transcontinental empire allowed for the exchange of cultures and religions between Asia and Europe via the Silk Road. Thus, the Pax Mongolica greatly influenced many civilizations in Eurasia during the 13th and 14th centuries; indeed, its cultural, social, religious, and economic impact on the world remains today. To solidify the foundation of the Mongol Empire, Genghis Khan employed two major strategies. First, because the Mongol Empire was too large to be controlled by a single ruler, he allocated the territories to his family members and let them rule their own independent territories [2, 3]. Because his wives were old and his sons were incompetent compared to his daughters, Genghis Khan bestowed upon his daughters, instead of his sons, the heavy responsibilities of shielding the inner territory of the Mongolian plateau and operating the outposts for his world conquest. He distributed the neighboring kingdoms surrounding the inner territory of the Mongolian plateau among his 4 daughters, including Alaqai Beki, “beki” meaning princess in the Mongolian language, who came to dominate the Ongud kingdom, Eastern Mongolia [2, 4]. His daughters faithfully ruled their own kingdoms throughout their lives on behalf of their father. Fig 1. Geographical features of Tavan Tolgoi graves. A: A map of Tavan Tolgoi (top) and the relative geographical locations (bottom) of the graves excavated there. B: Two headless stone statues called Mongol King and Queen are located at the entrance of Tavan Tolgoi. Genghis Khan’s second strategy was to use quda, the traditional marriage alliance system of Mongolia, to marry his sons and daughters into the ruling lineages of neighboring kingdoms such as the Ongud [3, 5]. Through this system, Genghis Khan expected his daughters to become regents of the kingdoms once dominated by their husbands (guregens; prince consorts in the Mongolian language); he forced guregens to go to war, leaving their wives (bekis) in charge of running the home according to Mongol tradition. In doing so, Genghis Khan conferred power to his daughters, and not to the guregens, to rule the kingdoms. Moreover, guregens could not return to their homeland for long periods of time, and were killed at a high rate in Genghis Khan’s war. Through these qudas, bekis, as authoritarian rulers, strengthened alliances among their kingdoms and provided Genghis Khan the solid foundation necessary to conquer many kingdoms outward from the Mongol steppe [2]. Thus, Genghis Khan could not have founded the Mongol Empire without his bekis dominating the kingdoms [2, 3]. Although Genghis Khan’s daughters wielded unprecedented political authority in several kingdoms of the Mongol Empire, their names and achievements in solidifying the Mongol Empire have disappeared from Mongol chronicles over generations. Their burial grounds have never been found because all members of the imperial family of the Mongol Empire, including khans, khatuns, meaning “empress” in Mongolian, bekis, and their descendants, were buried without identifying signs, according to the long-standing tradition of keeping the burial grounds of ancestors in a secret necropolis called “Lord’s Enclosure” [3–5]. Indeed, the geographical locations of the graves of the Mongol imperial family (designated the Golden family) members are unknown [1, 6, 7]. Many researchers believe that the discovery of graves of the ancients will undoubtedly reveal details of their genealogies and lives. Molecular archaeologists have developed scientific and systematic approaches to trace customs, diseases, and genealogies of the ancients as well as various activities during the lifetimes of ancient peoples. Accordingly, it is likely that direct molecular archaeological analysis of the human remains from Genghis Khan’s Golden family members who ruled Pax Mongolica will provide scientific clues to unveil their mysterious lives and genealogies. Fig 2. Some of the burial artifacts excavated from the Tavan Tolgoi graves. A-D: MN0105; A-B: a golden ring engraved with a falcon image, C-D: another golden ring engraved with the same falcon image as in A. E-G: MN0125; E: a saddle sheathed in gold dragon-shaped artistic decoration, F: the same golden ornament of boqta as those of the boqtas of Mongol khatuns in the design and shape, G: a golden ornament inside the boqta. H: Jins of MN0124. I: a golden earring of MN0126. J-K: MN0127; J: a golden earring, K: a coffin made of cinnamon. In 2004, 7 graves were first excavated in the central hill of Tavan Tolgoi (“five hills” in the Mongolian language) by a Mongolian excavation team. Tavan Tolgoi lies within the Ongud province once dominated by Alaqai Beki and then Sorkhokhtani, a wife of Genghis Khan’s youngest son Tolui, during the early Mongolian era [8]. Mongolian archaeologists who participated in the excavation of Tavan Tolgoi graves strongly suspected that 5 of 7 Tavan Tolgoi graves belonged to the Golden family [9–11], and one of those 5 graves was thought to be that of a Mongol Queen. Burial artifacts excavated from the Tavan Tolgoi graves have since been displayed in the National Museum of Mongolian History, recognized as important relics of the Mongol Empire. The 7 Tavan Tolgoi graves had similar exterior surface structures surrounded by a ring-shaped stone construction with a diameter of 6–8 m, reflecting a tomb style typical of the Xiongnu era (from about the 3rd century B.C. to the late 1st century C.E.) [11, 12]. However, the internal structure of the Tavan Tolgoi graves and the style of burial artifacts, instead, indicated graves from the medieval Mongolian era (Fig 2 and S1 Table) [11, 13]. This was confirmed by Youn and colleagues [14], who used 14C radiocarbon dating of their human remains or artifacts to show that the Tavan Tolgoi graves dated between 1130–1250 AD. Mongolian archaeologists demonstrated that the surface features of the Tavan Tolgoi graves were probably intended to protect the graves from looting and enemies from the contemporary or future world, implying that these individuals were important figures in the society at that time [10, 11]. Thus, archaeological and radiocarbon dating results strongly suggest that the 7 Tavan Tolgoi graves correspond to the early Mongolian era, when Genghis Khan and his close family members, including his sons, daughters, sons-in-law, and daughters-in-law, were in power.
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Post by Admin on Dec 26, 2018 18:23:27 GMT
All physical anthropological parameters indicate that the skulls of the Tavan Tolgoi graves were all anthropologically Mongoloid (S2 Table). Unfortunately, not all of the cranial metric traits from the skulls of MN0125 and MN0127 were available because of significant breakage of the skeletons, including the skulls. The presumed height and weight of MN0104 and MN0105 were 169.8 cm and 78.1 kg and 165.6 cm and 68.1 kg, respectively. Particularly, MN0105 was more than 10 cm taller than other females of average height in the Mongolian era, indicating that she was well nourished and/or genetically superior [9, 15]. Estimation of height and weight failed in other Tavan Tolgoi bodies; the femurs of MN0124, MN0126, and MN0376 were badly broken and those of MN0125 and MN0127 were completely broken. In addition, their anatomical sex and presumed age at death, according to physical anthropological data obtained from osteometric and odontometric estimation of the skulls and/or pelvic bones, and teeth, respectively, are shown in Table 1 and S1 Table [16, 17]. Based on these data, it was estimated that the anatomical sex of MN0104, MN0126, MN0127, and MN0376 was male, while that of the other bodies (MN0105, MN0124, and MN0125) was female. The results of physical anthropological analysis were coincided with those of amelogenin sex determination by the conventional PCR analysis using X-Y primers. One Tavan Tolgoi body (MN0124) was estimated to have died in her 10s, 4 (MN0104, MN0125, MN0126, and MN0127) in their 20s, and 2 (MN0105 and MN0376) in their 40s or 50s. Table 1. mtDNA haplogroups of the Tavan Tolgoi bodies. Burial artifacts from the 5 Tavan Tolgoi graves were exceptional in quality and quantity, compared to those previously found in other graves from the Mongolian era; most artifacts from the Tavan Tolgoi graves, however, including MN0104, MN0126, and MN0127, had been looted a long time ago [9]. In the female graves, MN0105 and MN0125, we unearthed golden rings engraved with the falcon image that symbolizes the Genghis Khan and the Borjigin clan, a saddle sheathed in gold dragon-shaped artistic decoration and golden ornaments for boqta, which are similar to those of Mongol khatuns in shape and decoration (Fig 2A–2G). In the male graves, MN0104 was unearthed holding an ornament, called “Jins” in Mongolia, consisting of a large pearl mounted on a flower-shaped golden base (Fig 2H). MN0126 and MN0127 were each wearing only a single earring that was found under the skull, indicating their higher social status (Fig 2I and 2J); Mongolian aristocratic men usually wore hats adorned with Jins and a single earring in their left ears, confirming that MN0104, MN0126 and MN0127 were all males. In addition, the coffin wood of MN0127 was not from trees native to the Mongolian Plateau; the wood was cinnamon (Cinnamomum sp.), which grows only in hot and humid Southeast Asia, at least several thousand kilometers away from Tavan Tolgoi. This finding suggests that he and his family had considerable financial and political power sufficient to bring the plant for his coffin from a far-off province. Taken together, these data clearly indicate that the 5 graves belong to the Golden family members who were contemporaries of Genghis Khan, including a Mongol Queen (MN0125), although their exact identities are ambiguous [9–11]. On the contrary, the internal structure and lack of notable artifacts, aside from a pair of small earrings, in the MN0124 grave containing the teenage female skeleton indicate that it belonged to a member of the general public of the Mongolian era. MN0376 was also believed to belong to a member of the general public, based on the artifacts excavated. The burial artifacts from this grave were all associated with war, including an arrow quiver and arrowheads; his physical anthropological characteristics, including several signs of injury during his lifetime, such as trauma of the left clavicle and a well-developed skeleton, indicate that he was a common warrior [9, 11]. Identification of mtDNA haplogroups and haplotypes of the Tavan Tolgoi bodies and their matrilineal origins Skeletons of 7 Tavan Tolgoi graves were analyzed for haplotypes and haplogroups of their mtDNAs through DNA sequencing of control regions, HVR1 and HVR2, and several coding regions. Their mtDNA haplotypes were determined by comparison of HVR1 and HVR2 DNA sequences with rCRS; mtDNA haplogroups were assigned by DNA sequence analysis of 10 additional coding regions and the control regions, HVR1 and HVR2, for obtaining unambiguous results [18, 22–25]. PCR amplification and DNA sequencing of the control and coding regions were successfully performed in all bodies examined by using primer sets presented in S5 Table; results obtained from the two laboratories were identical. Overall, 4 haplotypes were identified in the 7 Tavan Tolgoi bodies and were assigned to 4 haplogroups (Table 1). Four bodies, MN0104, MN0125, MN0126, and MN0127, likely members of the Golden family according to archaeological and physical anthropological analyses, were identical in their mtDNA sequences and were assigned to the same haplogroup, D4, prevalent in Far Eastern Asia [26, 27]. Meanwhile, the other Golden family member, MN0105, was assigned to the CZ haplogroup, which is prevalent in Northeastern Asia (mostly in Siberia), implying that MN0105 had no kinship with the other Golden family members of Tavan Tolgoi. The haplogroups of the members of the general public, MN0124 and MN0376, were R and M9, occurring mostly in Arabian plate and South East Asia including Tibet, respectively [28–30]. Identification of Y-haplogroups and haplotypes of the Tavan Tolgoi bodies and their patrilineal origins Patrilineal origins of Tavan Tolgoi bodies were first traced by Y-haplogrouping using 10 biallelic Y chromosome markers. Four (MN0104, MN0126, MN0127 and MN0376) of 7 Tavan Tologoi bodies were determined to be males based on physical anthropological estimation and molecular sex determination using amelogenin analysis (Table 1 and S1 Table). Unfortunately, MN0127, who was believed to belong to the Golden family, could not undergo Y-haplogroup analysis because the amount of DNA purified was insufficient for PCR amplification of the Y chromosome, which exists as only one copy within a cell. MN0104 was positive only for R-M207 and was negative for O-M175, C-RPS4Y, N-M231, D-M174, J-M304, and Q-M242 (Table 2 and S2 Fig). In addition, MN0104 carried the R1-defining M173 and R1b-defining M343 biallelic markers, but not R1a1a-defining M17. MN0126 was also positive for the same biallelic markers (R-M207 and R1b-M343) as those carried by MN0104 and negative for O-M175 and C-RPS4Y (Table 2 and S3 Fig) [31, 32]. These data suggest that male members, MN0104 and MN0126, of the Golden family belong to haplogroup R1b-M343; however, only 4 biallelic markers were definable in MN0126 [31]. In contrast, the Mongolian warrior MN0376 was positive for R-M207 and negative for O-M175, C-RPS4Y, N-M231, D-M174, J-M304, and Q-M242. MN0376 was affiliated with R1a1a-M17, a subclade of haplogroup R1, rather than R1b-M343 because he carried R-M207, R1-M173, and R1a1a-M17 but not R1b-M343 (Table 2 and S4 Fig) [31, 32]. Table 2. Y-haplogroups of the male Tavan Tolgoi bodies. To ascertain whether the R1b-M343-carrying males shared an identical haplotype, we determined their Y-allelotypes using 16 Y-STR markers (Table 3 and S5 Fig). Y-STR markers were examined in bodies MN0104, MN0126, and MN0376, but not MN0127, again due to PCR failure. Y-STR haplotypes of MN0104 and MN0376 were successfully identified in all of 16 marker loci examined, whereas only 8of 16 marker loci were determined in MN0126. Two Golden family members, MN0104 and MN0126, contained the consensus Y-STR allelotypes, which were identical in 7 of 8 definable loci and shared 1 of 2 alleles in a DYS385 marker locus. In contrast, 10 of the 16 marker loci that were definable were not identical in Y-STR allelotypes between MN0104 and MN0376, and 5 of 8 loci between MN0126 and MN0376 did not match in their Y-STR allelotypes. These results are fully consistent with the Y-SNP results, indicating that MN0104 and MN0126 had identical Y-haplotypes from the same patrilineal origin, whereas MN0376 shared no patrilineal origin with the two male members of the Golden family. Additionally, individuals with the Y-STR profile matching that of MN0104 in 16 definable marker loci were searched in the literature reporting Y-STR profiles associated with modern Eurasian populations (S6 Table) [33–35]. Two Russian (named Kalmyk 73 and Russian), 1 Uzbek (named 26), and 1 Tajik (named 134) individuals were found to match MN0104 in 14–16 definable Y-STR marker loci. One (named Kalmyk 73) of 2 Russians was confirmed to be the same individual as the Kalmyk described above and searched from YHRD. The other 3 individuals including Russian, Uzbek, and Tajik were previously assigned to the Y-haplogroups R1*-M173, R1b1a*-P297, and R1b1a*-P297, respectively, by Y-SNP analysis [34, 35], except for Kalmyk 73 which was not previously assigned to the specific Y-haplogroup in the literature [33]. The Russian matched MN0104 in 15 of 16 marker loci, exhibiting a different allele from MN0104 in the DYS439 Y-STR marker locus. Two other individuals (Uzbek and Tajik) whose Y-STR profiles were identical in all 16 marker loci did not match MN0104 in 2 marker loci (DYS389II and DYS458). MN0104, Kalmyk, and the other Russian (named Russian) were also assigned to the Y- haplogroup R1b through Yfiler of YHRD, while the other individuals, Uzbek (named 26) and Tajik, were not assigned to the specific Y-haplogroup through Yfiler of YHRD. In contrast, individuals with the same Y-STR profiles as that of MN0376 were screened through Yfiler and PowerPlex Y from YHRD and the literature (S7 Table). Individuals matching MN0376 in the Y-STR profiles defined through Yfiler of YHRD were not identified, whereas 8 individuals perfectly matched MN0376 in all 11 definable Y-STR marker loci through PowerPlex Y of YHRD. In addition, none were previously assigned to the specific Y-haplogroup based on Y-SNP analysis and were affiliated with a specific Y-haplogroup through PowerPlex Y of YHRD. However, 7 individuals who matched MN0376 in 13 of 16 marker loci were identified in the literature [34–38], including 1 Russian, 1 Hui (Chinese), 1 Croatian, and 4 Pashtun. Two individuals (Russian and Pashtun) were previously assigned to the Y-haplogroup R1a1a-M17 using Y-SNP analysis, and the 3 other Pashtuns were assigned to the Y-haplogroup R1a1a*-M198 (S7 Table). The Hui (Chinese) and Croatian were not previously assigned to the specific Y-haplogroup using Y-SNP analysis. All 7 individuals were affiliated with the Y-haplogroup R1a through Yfiler of YHRD, whereas MN0376 was not assigned to a specific Y-haplogroup.
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Post by Admin on Dec 26, 2018 22:20:23 GMT
Taking all data of Y-SNP and Y-STR into consideration, the male Golden family bodies (MN0104, MN0126, and MN0127) from Tavan Tolgoi were clearly assigned to the Y-haplogroup R1b with the identical Y-haplotype, whereas a male general public (MN0376) to the Y-haplogroup R1a1a showed a quite different Y-haplotype from that of male members of the Golden family. Golden family members of Tavan Tolgoi reveal the genealogical admixture between Caucasoid and Mongoloid ethnic groups So far, no molecular archaeological study of members of the Mongolian imperial family has been conducted; this is largely because no grave of imperial family, especially those of the Golden family, has been identified until the Tavan Tolgoi grave excavation. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first molecular archeological attempt to define the genealogy of Genghis Khan’s Golden family members in the Mongolian era. Evidence suggests that many Mongoloid and Caucasoid nomadic tribes inhabited the present-day Mongolian plateau over thousands of years [40]. Since Genghis Khan’s era, the Mongolian population underwent rapid and considerable gene flow from Eurasia, resulting in additional genetic admixture [40]. Likewise, the Mongolian population was formed by the continuous admixture of indigenous tribes who inhabited the Mongolian plateau, with European and other Asian populations who inhabited regions geographically distant from Mongolia. This admixture has deeply influenced the physical appearance of modern-day Mongolian people, exhibiting both Mongoloid and Caucasoid features. The mixing between Mongoloid and Caucasoid ethnic groups inherent in the genetic structure of modern-day Mongolians was also observed in the Tavan Tolgoi bodies. The Golden family members carried mtDNA haplogroups D4 and CZ, mostly found in Far Eastern and Northeastern Asia, respectively, whereas male members of Golden family carried the Y-haplogroup R1b-M343, dominant in Western Europe [41–43]. That is, although members of Golden family were physically Mongoloid, their molecular genealogy revealed the admixture between Caucasoid and Mongoloid ethnic groups. Thus, it is likely that their Mongoloid appearance would have resulted from gradual changes in their appearance from Caucasoid to Mongoloid through generations from their ancestors. Their physical appearance was largely attributed to D4-carrying Mongoloid females who were indigenous peoples of the Mongolian plateau, rather than an R1b-M343-carrying Caucasoid male spouse who had initially moved from Europe to the Mongolian plateau and his male descendants; it is, however, uncertain how and when the admixture between Mongoloid and Caucasoid ethnic groups originated in the Mongolian plateau. Fig 3. Geographic distribution of modern-day populations with haplogroup R1b-M343 Y-haplogroup R1b-M343 of Tavan Tolgoi bodies may be another candidate for the Y-haplogroup of Genghis Khan and Genghis Khan’s Borjigin clan Although many regard the portrait at the National Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan, as the depiction most closely resembles Genghis Khan, all existing portraits, including this one, are essentially arbitrary interpretations of Genghis Khan’s appearance by historians living generations after Genghis Khan’s era [2, 6]. Although the factual nature of the statement is controversial, Persian historian Rashid-al-Din reported in his “Jami’s al-tawarikh” written at the start of the 14th century that most Borjigin ancestors of Genghis Khan were tall, long-bearded, red-haired, and bluish green-eyed, suggesting that the Genghis Khan’s male lineage had some Caucasoid-specific genetic features [44]. He also said that Genghis Khan looked just like his ancestors, but Kublai Khan, his grandson, did not inherit his ancestor’s red hair, implying that the addition of Mongoloid-specific alleles for determining hair color to the genetic makeup of Genghis Khan’s Borjigin clan was probably from the grandmother or mother of Kublai Khan, that is, the wife or daughter-in-law of Genghis Khan. “On” and “gud” from Ongud mean West and plural in ancient Altaic language, respectively, implying that the Ongud is a tribe from Western Asia. In fact, the ancestors of the Ongud are the Shato Turks of the Western Göktürks Khaganate [45, 46]; they moved to Eastern Xinjiang in the 7th century, and were scattered over Northern China and Inner Mongolia in the 9th century [47]. In the Mongolian era, many Ongud peoples were resettled in Khorazm of Western Central Asia, as governors for the Golden Horde Dynasty, and eventually formed part of the Kazakhs and the Mughals [44]. In addition, they also fell under the Chagatai Khanate that was ruled by Chagatai Khan and his descendants and/or successors and extended from the Southern part of the Aral Sea to the Altai Mountains [48]. These suggest the possibility that the Ongud clan may be anthropologically Caucasoid rather than Mongoloid, according to their geographical origin. Therefore, the male bodies carrying R1b-M343 (prevalent in Western Europe) from Tavan Tolgoi, which was located within the territory of the Ongud Kingdom during the early Mongolian era, could be related to the Ongud male lineage, implying that Tavan Tolgoi bodies are genealogically Caucasoid. Eastern Russian Tatars, Bashkirs, and Pakistani Hazara were found to carry R1b-M343 at unusually high frequencies of 12.65%, 46.07%, and 32%, respectively, compared to other regions of Eastern Asia, which rarely have this haplotype (Fig 3) [40, 42, 43, 49–53]. Interestingly, ancestors of those 3 populations were all closely associated with the medieval Mongol Empire. That is, Russian Tatars and Bashkirs are descendants of the Golden Horde (also known as the Ulus of Jochi) that had been controlled by Jochi, the first son of Genghis Khan, and his descendants during the 12th–15th centuries. In addition, some of the Hazara tribes are believed to consist of descendants of Mongolian soldiers and their slave women after the 1221 siege of Bamiyan under the leadership of Genghis Khan [54, 55]. Through domination of Hazara, Mongolians strongly influenced the genetic makeup of the Hazara people, especially in Pakistan [49, 54, 56]. Some modern Hazara populations resemble Mongolians in their physical attributes including facial bone structure. Similarly, the high frequency of R1b-M343 in geographic regions associated with the past Mongol khanates including the Golden Horde (from Ural Mountain to Western Siberia, which includes Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan), Ilkhanate (Iran and neighboring territories including Armenia, Turkey, Georgia, Afghanistan, Syria, and Tajikistan), and Chagatai Khanate (from the Aral sea to the Altai mountain, including Pakistan (Hazara), Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, India, and China), strongly suggest a close association between the Y haplotype R1b-M343 and the past Mongol Empire (Fig 3) [42–44, 49–53]. : Lkhagvasuren G, Shin H, Lee SE, Tumen D, Kim J-H, Kim K-Y, et al. (2016) Molecular Genealogy of a Mongol Queen’s Family and Her Possible Kinship with Genghis Khan. PLoS ONE 11(9): e0161622.
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