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512 Discussion
513 Until now, our main understanding of the VA was largely based on a combination of historical sources
514 and archaeological evidence. These often characterize the VA as a period of high mobility and
515 interaction between peoples. Networks of trade were established, connecting distant regions within
516 Scandinavia through established waterways with significant movement between regions. It has also
517 been viewed as a time where links were created to regions outside Europe, from the Pontic Steppe in
518 the east to North America in the west.
Fig. 4: Spatiotemporal patterns of Viking and non-Viking ancestry in Europe during the IA,EVA and VA. UK = ‘British-like’ / ‘North Atlantic’ ancient ancestry component. Sweden = ‘Swedish-like’ ancient ancestry component. Denmark = ‘Danish-like’ ancient ancestry component. Norway = ‘Norwegian-like’ ancient ancestry component. Italy = ‘Southern European-like’ ancestry component. See Table S11.2 for statistical tests. The ‘Swedish-like’ ancestry is the highest in present day Estonia due to the ancient samples from the Salme ship burial, which originated from the Mälaren Valley of Sweden, according to archaeological sources.
519 Our genomic analyses add complex layers of nuance to this simple picture. We largely reconstruct
520 the long-argued movements of Vikings outside Scandinavia: Danish Vikings going to Britain,
521 Norwegian Vikings moving to Ireland, Iceland, and Greenland, and Swedish Vikings sailing east
522 towards the Baltic and beyond. However, we also see evidence of individuals with ancient Swedish
523 and Finnish ancestry in the westernmost fringes of Europe, whilst Danish-like ancestry is also found
524 in the east, defying our modern notions of historical groupings. It is likely that many such individuals
525 were from communities with mixtures of ancestries, likely thrown together by complex trading,
526 raiding and settling networks that crossed cultures and the continent.
527 Our observations also suggest that the different parts of Scandinavia were not as evenly connected,
528 as has often been assumed. Despite relatively fast and easy communication between the coastal
529 regions of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, we find that clear genetic structure was present in Viking-
530 Age Scandinavia. In fact, our data indicate that Viking Scandinavia consisted of a limited number of
531 transport zones and maritime enclaves64 where contact was made with Europe, while the remaining
532 regions had limited external gene flow with the rest of the Scandinavian continent. Some Viking-Age
533 Scandinavian locations are relatively homogeneous both in terms of genetic diversity and patterns of
534 ancestry; particularly mid-Norway, Jutland, and the Atlantic settlements, which contain
535 predominantly Norwegian-like and ‘North Atlantic’ (including pre-Anglo Saxon British) ancestry.
536 Indeed, one of the clearest vectors of contrast observed in this study is between the strong genetic
537 variation seen in relatively populous coastal trading communities such as in the islands Gotland and
538 Öland, and the reduced diversity in less populated (mostly inland) areas in Scandinavia. Such high
539 genetic heterogeneity, which was likely due to increased population size, extends the urbanization
540 model of Late Viking Age city of Sigtuna proposed by Krzewińska et al.6 both spatially and further
541 back in time.
542 Interestingly, our findings correspond with paleodemographic studies based on place-name evidence
543 and archaeological distributions suggesting population density was higher in Denmark than elsewhere
544 in Viking-Age Scandinavia65. Gene flow from Denmark to the north is also paralleled by the linguistic
545 affinities of the medieval Scandinavian languages: The 12th-century Icelandic law text Grágás states
546 that the common language of Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders, and Danes was dǫnsk tunga (‘Danish
547 tongue’)66. It appears that the formation of large-scale trading and cultural networks that spread
548 people, goods and warfare took time to affect the heartlands of Scandinavia, which received much
549 more restricted gene flow, retaining pre-existing genetic differences between Scandinavian
550 populations. This pattern of behavior seems to prevail from the beginning of the Viking diaspora to
551 its end at the beginning of the medieval period.
552 Our findings also show that Vikings are not simply a direct continuation of the Scandinavian Iron
553 Age groups. Rather than simple continuity, we observe foreign gene flow from the south and east
554 into Scandinavia, starting in the Iron Age, and continuing throughout the duration of the Viking
555 period from an increasing number of sources. Our findings also contradict the myth of the Vikings as
556 peoples of pure local Scandinavian ancestry. In fact, we found many Viking Age individuals with
557 high levels of foreign ancestry, both within and outside Scandinavia, suggesting ongoing gene flow
558 with different peoples across Europe. Indeed, it appears that some foreign peoples contributed more
559 genetic ancestry to Scandinavia during this period than the Vikings contributed to them which could
560 partially be due to smaller effective population size of the VA Scandinavians as opposed to their
561 continental and British neighbors.
513 Until now, our main understanding of the VA was largely based on a combination of historical sources
514 and archaeological evidence. These often characterize the VA as a period of high mobility and
515 interaction between peoples. Networks of trade were established, connecting distant regions within
516 Scandinavia through established waterways with significant movement between regions. It has also
517 been viewed as a time where links were created to regions outside Europe, from the Pontic Steppe in
518 the east to North America in the west.
Fig. 4: Spatiotemporal patterns of Viking and non-Viking ancestry in Europe during the IA,EVA and VA. UK = ‘British-like’ / ‘North Atlantic’ ancient ancestry component. Sweden = ‘Swedish-like’ ancient ancestry component. Denmark = ‘Danish-like’ ancient ancestry component. Norway = ‘Norwegian-like’ ancient ancestry component. Italy = ‘Southern European-like’ ancestry component. See Table S11.2 for statistical tests. The ‘Swedish-like’ ancestry is the highest in present day Estonia due to the ancient samples from the Salme ship burial, which originated from the Mälaren Valley of Sweden, according to archaeological sources.
519 Our genomic analyses add complex layers of nuance to this simple picture. We largely reconstruct
520 the long-argued movements of Vikings outside Scandinavia: Danish Vikings going to Britain,
521 Norwegian Vikings moving to Ireland, Iceland, and Greenland, and Swedish Vikings sailing east
522 towards the Baltic and beyond. However, we also see evidence of individuals with ancient Swedish
523 and Finnish ancestry in the westernmost fringes of Europe, whilst Danish-like ancestry is also found
524 in the east, defying our modern notions of historical groupings. It is likely that many such individuals
525 were from communities with mixtures of ancestries, likely thrown together by complex trading,
526 raiding and settling networks that crossed cultures and the continent.
527 Our observations also suggest that the different parts of Scandinavia were not as evenly connected,
528 as has often been assumed. Despite relatively fast and easy communication between the coastal
529 regions of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, we find that clear genetic structure was present in Viking-
530 Age Scandinavia. In fact, our data indicate that Viking Scandinavia consisted of a limited number of
531 transport zones and maritime enclaves64 where contact was made with Europe, while the remaining
532 regions had limited external gene flow with the rest of the Scandinavian continent. Some Viking-Age
533 Scandinavian locations are relatively homogeneous both in terms of genetic diversity and patterns of
534 ancestry; particularly mid-Norway, Jutland, and the Atlantic settlements, which contain
535 predominantly Norwegian-like and ‘North Atlantic’ (including pre-Anglo Saxon British) ancestry.
536 Indeed, one of the clearest vectors of contrast observed in this study is between the strong genetic
537 variation seen in relatively populous coastal trading communities such as in the islands Gotland and
538 Öland, and the reduced diversity in less populated (mostly inland) areas in Scandinavia. Such high
539 genetic heterogeneity, which was likely due to increased population size, extends the urbanization
540 model of Late Viking Age city of Sigtuna proposed by Krzewińska et al.6 both spatially and further
541 back in time.
542 Interestingly, our findings correspond with paleodemographic studies based on place-name evidence
543 and archaeological distributions suggesting population density was higher in Denmark than elsewhere
544 in Viking-Age Scandinavia65. Gene flow from Denmark to the north is also paralleled by the linguistic
545 affinities of the medieval Scandinavian languages: The 12th-century Icelandic law text Grágás states
546 that the common language of Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders, and Danes was dǫnsk tunga (‘Danish
547 tongue’)66. It appears that the formation of large-scale trading and cultural networks that spread
548 people, goods and warfare took time to affect the heartlands of Scandinavia, which received much
549 more restricted gene flow, retaining pre-existing genetic differences between Scandinavian
550 populations. This pattern of behavior seems to prevail from the beginning of the Viking diaspora to
551 its end at the beginning of the medieval period.
552 Our findings also show that Vikings are not simply a direct continuation of the Scandinavian Iron
553 Age groups. Rather than simple continuity, we observe foreign gene flow from the south and east
554 into Scandinavia, starting in the Iron Age, and continuing throughout the duration of the Viking
555 period from an increasing number of sources. Our findings also contradict the myth of the Vikings as
556 peoples of pure local Scandinavian ancestry. In fact, we found many Viking Age individuals with
557 high levels of foreign ancestry, both within and outside Scandinavia, suggesting ongoing gene flow
558 with different peoples across Europe. Indeed, it appears that some foreign peoples contributed more
559 genetic ancestry to Scandinavia during this period than the Vikings contributed to them which could
560 partially be due to smaller effective population size of the VA Scandinavians as opposed to their
561 continental and British neighbors.