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Post by Admin on Jan 30, 2022 20:27:11 GMT
Haplogroup C2 (formerly known as C3) reaches its highest frequency among the Kazakhs (66~73.7% among the Kazakhs of Kazakhstan,53 75.47% among the Kazakhs of Xinjiang (Zhong et al. 2010: figure 1), 78% among the Kazakhs of Karakalpakstan (Balaresque et al. 2015: supplementary figure 1) and 59.7% among the Kazakhs of the Altai Republic in Russia (Dulik et al. 2011, 2–3, tables 1 & 2)), whose ancestors include the Qipchaqs and other Turkic groups, and the Mongols, among others. However, some Kazakh tribes, divided into the Senior Horde (Ulu Jüz), the Middle Horde (Orta Jüz), and the Lesser or Junior Horde (Kishi Jüz), have their own representative Y-chromosome haplogroups. Among the Naiman, belonging to the Middle Horde, haplogroups C2 and O3 are the most common.54 Among the Argyn, another Middle Horde tribe, haplogroup G1-M285, which is believed to have originated in West Iran,55 is found at high frequency (57.7%). The Qipchaq (Karakypshak) tribe, another Middle Horde tribe, is characterised by the R1b subclade R1b1a1a1 (R1b-M73) (63.6%).56 This is a rare haplogroup that appears at moderate to high frequency only among this Kazakh tribe and some Turkic groups of the Altai Mountains region (35.3% among the Kumandin: Dulik et al. 2012: 234, table 2), among others. In general, the Kazakhs are characterised by a high frequency of haplogroup C2 and a low frequency of haplogroup R1a1, which differentiates them from the Qirghiz (Kyrgyz) and the southern Altaians. The Karakalpaks, a Qipchaq Turkic-speaking people residing in western Uzbekistan, exhibit a set of haplogroups similar to those of the Kazakhs with relatively lower frequency of haplogroup C2 and higher frequency of haplogroups N and R1a1: C2 (31.5%), G (26%), R1a1 (9.26%), and N1b and N1c1 (7.4%) among the On Tört Uruw grouping; R1a1 (29.6%), N1b and N1c1 (22.2%), C2 (20.4%), and Q (11.1%) among the Qonghrat grouping (Balaresque et al. 2015: supplementary figure 1). Compared to those of Inner Asian nomadic origins, the Turkic peoples who descend from both the nomadic and sedentary populations of the Central Asian oasis regions, i.e. Transoxiana and the Tarim Basin (which roughly correspond to modern-day Uzbekistan and southern Xinjiang, respectively), have more diverse sets of representative haplogroups. The Xinjiang Uighurs, who descend from both the ancient Indo-Europeans and the ancient Turkic Uighurs (Golden 1992: 409), exhibit haplogroups R1a1 (21~28.6%), J (18.4~27%), O3 (12.2~17%), C2 (6.1~18%), and N (0~4.1%).57 The modern Uzbeks, who also descend from the ancient Indo-European (Iranic) populations and various Inner Asian nomadic peoples (Golden 1992: 407), including the Shibanid Uzbeks,58 exhibit a set of haplogroups similar to those of the Xinjiang Uighurs: R1a1 (17.6~32%), J (5.9~21.4%), C2 (7~18%, 41.2%59), O3 (0~12%) and N (0~5.9%).60 Haplogroup J is a patrilineal lineage originating in the Middle East and probably reached Central Asia with Neolithic farmers from the Middle East.61 As to haplogroup R1a1 among the modern-day Uzbeks and Xinjiang Uighurs, the extent to which it originated from the Bronze Age Indo-European pastoralists and from the Turkic and Turkicized Inner Asian nomadic groups, respectively, remains open to speculation. Haplogroups O3, C2, and N were in all likelihood brought to Transoxiana by various Turkic and Mongolic peoples.62 The Qipchaq Turkic-speaking Volga Tatars and the Oghuric Turkic-speaking Chuvashes inhabiting the Volga-Ural region are characterised by high frequencies of haplogroups R1a1 (20.8~34.1% and 29.5~31.6%, respectively) and N (both N1c1 and N1b subclades) (23.1~28.3% and 27~28%, respectively) according to some surveys. Haplogroups J (15.1% and 15.9%, respectively), I (4~13.2% and 11.4%, respectively), and C (1.6~5.7% and 0~1.3%, respectively) are also found among the Volga Tatars and the Chuvashes (Trofimova et al. 2015: table 1; Tambets et al. 2004: 667, table 3). The Bashkirs, another Qipchaq Turkic-speaking people of the Volga-Ural region, are also characterised by the high presence of haplogroups N1c1 (3~65%) and R1a1 (9~48%). R1b subclades R1b1a1a1 (R1b-M73) (0~55%) and R1b1a1a2 (R1b-M269) (0~84%),63 C (0~17%), J (0~8%), and I (0~2%) also make up the genetic composition of the Bashkirs.64
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Post by Admin on Jan 30, 2022 23:35:26 GMT
However, it is difficult to assess the extent of the Turkic and non-Turkic genetic contributions to these groups with the given data. In the surveys discussed above, haplogroup R1a1 has not been classified into its subclade R1a1a1b1a (R1a-Z282), which prevails among East Slavs, and subclade R1a1a1b2 (R1a-Z93), which spread across Eurasia by the Bronze Age Indo-European (Iranic) pastoralists and is carried by various modern-day Turkic groups.65 One should also note that haplogroup N, found among the Turkic peoples of the Volga-Ural region and Central Asia, has ‘a common Siberian genetic background of FinnoUgric and Turkic tribes’ (Khusnutdinova et al. 2008: 378). Unlike the Turkic peoples of Kazakhstan, Tatarstan and Bashkortostan, who speak the Qipchaq Turkic language, the Turkmens, the Azeris and the Anatolian Turks speak the Oghuz Turkic languages. The Turkmens descend from the Oghuz, a Turkic nomadic group that inhabited the Aral Sea and Caspian Sea steppes during the ninth and tenth centuries AD.66 The founders of the Seljuk and Ottoman empires belonged to this Turkic group. According to DNA testing of the Turkmens living in (Jawzjan) Afghanistan and northern Iran, they belong to haplogroups Q (33.8~42.6%), J (14.3~17.6%), R1a1 (14.5~16.2%), L (4~5.8%),67 G (4~5.7%), N and O (2.9~9.45%), E (4.3~5.4%), and C (0~1.35%) (Grugni et al. 2012: 7, table 1; Di Cristofaro et al. 2013: 5–7, figure S7). While one may attribute Inner Asian origin to haplogroups Q, N, C, and O, it is difficult to determine to what extent haplogroup R1a1 (R1a-Z93) is from Inner Asia, since it is also carried by Iranic-speaking peoples such as modern Iranians (Persians) (4.5~20.3%) (Grugni et al. 2012: 7, table 1) and Pashtuns (51.2~56.3%) (Di Cristofaro et al. 2013: 5–7, figure S7; Haber et al. 2012: table S4).68 At any rate, haplogroup Q also dominates the gene pool of the Turkmens living in Uzbekistan (Karakalpakstan). More specifically, the Turkmens mostly belonging to the Yomud tribe exhibit haplogroups Q (73%), H (7%),69 R1b1a1a1 (R1b-M73) (5%), R1a1 (4%), G2 (4%), N (2~4%), J (2~4%), and C2 (1~2%) (Skhalyakho et al. 2016: 88). Therefore, one may assume that haplogroup Q is the most prevalent lineage among the Turkmens.70 Finally, the Turks of the Republic of Turkey, a successor state to the Ottoman empire, show the highest haplogroup diversity according to an extensive survey of Anatolian Turkish Y-chromosome variation. Their major haplogroups are those common in the Near East and Europe (Cinnioğlu et al. 2004: 130, figure 2): J (33.5%), R1b (15.86%, including R1b-M73, which makes up 0.76% of the Turkish R1b) (Cinnioğlu et al. 2004: 130), E (11.3%), G (10.9%), R1a1 (6.9%), I (5.3%) and L (4.2%). Haplogroups I, more specifically its subclade I2 (formerly I1b), is most common in the Balkans, reaching its highest incidences among the Croats and Bosnians.71 Importantly, haplogroups N (3.8%), Q (1.9%), C (1.3%), and O (0.2%), which must have come from or via Central and Inner Asia, make up less than 10% of the total population (Cinnioğlu et al. 2004: 135).72 The Y-chromosome haplogroup composition of another Oghuz Turkic-speaking nation, the Azeris, is somewhat similar to that of the Anatolian Turks: J (31%), G (mostly G2) (18%), and E (6%) (Nasidze et al. 2003: table 2). The same holds true for that of the Azeris of northeastern Iran: J (27.2%), R1a1 (19.0%), R1b (17.5%), E (11.1%), G2 (8%), T (7.9%),73 Q (4.8%), and N (1.6%) (Grugni et al. 2012: table 1). In sum, although they share certain haplogroups, modern Turkic populations exhibit dissimilar sets of Y-chromosome haplogroups with different representative haplogroups. The most prevalent haplogroups among different Turkic peoples are as follows: (1) N1c1 among the Sakhas residing in northeastern Siberia; (2) N (both N1b and N1c1), C2, Q, and R1a1 among the Tuvinians residing in the Sayan Mountains region; (3) R1a1 and C2 among the southern Altaians and the Qirghiz (Kyrgyz) from the Altai Mountains and the Tien Shan Mountains regions, respectively; (4) N and R1a1 among the Khakass from the Yenisei River regions; (5) R1a1 (mainly R1a-Z282), N, R1b (mainly R1b-M269), J, and I among the Turkic peoples of the Volga-Ural region; (6) R1a1, J, O3, and C2 among the Xinjiang Uighurs and the Uzbeks residing in the Central Asian oasis regions; (7) C2, O3, and G1 among the Kazakhs residing in the Inner Asian steppes; (8) Q, J, and R1a1 among various Turkmen groups; (9) J, R1b (R1bM269), E, and G2 among the Turks and the Azeris residing in Anatolia and the Caucasus region, respectively. Such diversity implies that the Turkic peoples living in different regions have heterogeneous paternal origins and that they include linguistically Turkicised indigenous elements. This also indicates that the Turkicisation of many areas of Eurasia did not necessarily involve mass migrations of Turkic peoples.
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Post by Admin on Jan 31, 2022 3:15:37 GMT
Analysis of Ancient DNA Importantly, studies of ancient DNA extracted from human skeletal remains reveal that the early and medieval Turkic-speaking peoples also possessed diverse sets of haplogroups. DNA analysis of the remains of 62 specimens excavated from a Xiongnu elite cemetery in the Egyin Gol valley reveals that the Xiongnu possessed haplogroups N1c1, Q, and C (Petkovski 2006: 114, 138–40).74 According to the DNA study of three human remains from another Xiongnu cemetery in Duurlig Nars in northeastern Mongolia, one specimen belonged to haplogroup C and the other to haplogroup R1a1 (Kim et al. 2010).75 Interestingly, the Chinese geneticists who studied the DNA in the human remains from the pre-Xiongnu and Xiongnu periods conclude that haplogroup Q was the major Xiongnu lineage: four male samples from the Eastern Zhou period (770–221 BC) buried in Pengyang, China, carry haplogroup Q (Zhao et al. 2010: 218). However, the authors do not clearly state that these samples were Xiongnu. Another Chinese study found only haplogroup Q among the human remains from Barköl, Xinjiang, China. The authors of this Chinese study suggest that the Xiongnu spoke a Yeniseian language, since haplogroup Q is mostly found in Yeniseian and Native American peoples (Kang et al. 2013).76 If the samples studied by the Chinese geneticists are indeed Xiongnu remains, it appears that haplogroups C and Q were the most common Xiongnu patrilineal lineages. While it may be safe to assume that haplogroup R1a1 was not a major Xiongnu lineage, it probably constituted the majority of the nomads residing in the Altai Mountains during the Bronze Age. A study of 14 human specimens excavated in the westernmost Mongolian Altai Mountains shows that the Bronze Age nomads of the Altai Mountains belonged to haplogroups R1a1a1b2 (R1a-Z93) (44.45%), Q subclade Q1a2a1-L54 (44.45%) and C (11.12%) (Hollard et al. 2014: 201, table 1).77 One should note here that the above-discussed genetic makeup of the Xiongnu and their neighbouring Altaian nomads, who were probably incorporated into the Xiongnu confederation, corroborates the Xiongnu phenotypical characteristics depicted in Chinese histories. It is likely that the Inner Asian looking Xiongnu mostly belonged to Y-chromosome haplogroups C2, Q, and N, while the West Eurasian-looking Jie probably belonged to Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a1. Alternatively, if the Jie, ‘a separate branch of the Xiongnu’, who founded the Later Zhao Dynasty (319–351 AD), were indeed a Yeniseian speaking people, they may have been carriers of haplogroup Q and resembled modern-day Kets of Siberia. During the Bronze Age and early Iron Age, the Yenisei River region was inhabited by Indo-Europeans. The DNA study of 26 ancient human specimens from the Krasnoyarsk area dated from the middle of the second millennium BC to the fourth century AD shows that the Yenisei pastoralists mostly belonged to haplogroup R1a1 (Keyser et al. 2009: 401, table 3). The high frequency of R1a1 among the modern-day Qirghiz (Kyrgyz) and Altaians may thus prove that they are descended from the Yenisei Qirghiz. In addition, this may explain the reason why medieval Chinese histories depict the Qirghiz as possessing West Eurasian physiognomy.78 The medieval Sakhas were characterised by haplogroup N1c1 like their modern descendants. The analysis of the Y-chromosome DNA extracted from 58 mummified frozen bodies dating from the fifteenth to the nineteenth centuries shows that haplogroup N1c1 accounts for 61% of the Sakha male samples (38% of the samples were unidentifiable. See Crubézy et al. 2010: 2). This indicates that the Turkic nomads inhabiting the west Baikal region79 around the fifteenth century and earlier were also characterised by haplogroup N, perhaps like modern-day Tuvinians. If the Sakhas are indeed descended from the Quriqan, a Tiele tribe, it may be that the official Chinese histories differentiated between the Yenisei Qirghiz and the Dingling/Tiele because the two were distinct peoples, perhaps characterised by haplogroup R1a1 and haplogroup N, repectively.80
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Post by Admin on Jan 31, 2022 20:53:53 GMT
The Y-chromosomes of the Kök Türks have not been studied. After the collapse of the Second Türk Khaganate in 745 CE, the Kök Türks became dispersed and it is difficult to identify their modern descendants. If they were indeed descended from the Saka (Suo) or related to the Qirghiz, as the Zhoushu states (Zhoushu 50.908), the Ashina may have belonged to the R1a1 lineage. Instead, if the Kök Türks were related to the Muma Tujue (Türks), the former may have been genetically close to the ancestors of modern Tuvinians and characterised by high frequencies of haplogroups N, C2 and Q. As a matter of fact, Chinese geneticists tested the DNA extracted from the remains of a Yuan nobleman, who was probably an Önggüt prince. The Y-chromosome haplogroup of this person was Q (Cui et al. 2015: 3, 5–8). Since the Önggüt were probably descended from the Western Türks through the Shatuo tribe, as discussed above, one may speculate that haplogroup Q was one of the Y-chromosome haplogroups carried by the Western Türks. Like the Kök Türks, the Y-chromosomes of the Tiele or the ancient Uighurs have not been tested. Yet we may perhaps infer their genetic markers from the DNA testing of the medieval Sakhas, modern-day Western Yugurs, Naimans and Buryats. As discussed above, the Western Yugurs and Naimans are the descendants of the ancient Uighurs and are characterised by moderate to high frequencies of haplogroups C2, O3, and Q and by the absence, or a low frequency, of haplogroup R1a1. The Buryats are viewed by some historians as (at least partly) descending from the Quriqan (e.g. Tokarev 1962: 106–7), a Tiele tribe, like the Sakhas, and are characterised by the high frequencies of haplogroups C2 (40%) and N (48%) (Kharkov et al. 2014: 183, table 1). If the Western Yugurs, Naimans, Sakhas, and Buryats, along with the Tuvinians, are the modern descendants of the medieval Tiele, one may assume that the Tiele (or at least the Tiele who resided in Mongolia) were carriers of haplogroups C2, N, O3, and Q, among others. The mitochondrial DNA extracted from the remains of the Qipchaqs (Cumanians) has been tested by Hungarian geneticists. Interestingly, their study reveals that the Qipchaqs possessed West Eurasian mitochondrial DNA lineages, even though analysis of their skulls shows that the Qipchaq specimens possessed Inner Asian physiognomy (Bogácsi-Szabó et al. 2005: 642, 658). The Y-chromosomes of the Qipchaq specimens were not tested in this study. However, the Y-chromosome haplogroup of the medieval Qipchaqs may be inferred from those of their modern descendants among the Kazakhs. As discussed above, the Qipchaq (Karakypshak) tribe belonging to the Kazakh Middle Horde is characterised by a high frequency of R1b1a1a1 (R1b-M73) (Sabitov 2013: 35). This may be the reason why the Zizhi tongjian houbian described the medieval Qipchaqs (Qincha 欽察) as possessing ‘blue eyes and red hair’ (Zizhi tongjian houbian, chapter 141). Alternatively, we may assume that the modern descendants of the Qipchaqs are the western Kazakhs, belonging to the Lesser Horde, who are characterised by a high frequency of C2 subclade C2b1b1 (formerly known as C3c1). This haplogroup may explain why the Qipchaq crania excavated from the kurgans (burial mounds) of eastern Ukraine possess Inner Asian physiognomy (Oshanin 1964: 24, 32). The major Y-chromosome haplogroups of the medieval Turkmens may also be inferred from those of their modern descendants, which are haplogroups Q, R1a1, J and N, among others. The presence of haplogroups R1a1 and J among the Turkmens may explain the reason why the medieval Turkmens were described as having lost their original Turkic physiognomy and as becoming Tajiklooking, i.e., sedentary Iranian-looking, by Muslim writers. At the same time, haplogroups Q and N may explain why al-Masʿūdī wrote that the Oghuz Turks residing in Yengi-kent had ‘slanted eyes’ and ‘dimunitive stature’ (al-Masʿūdī 1962–: Vol. 1:212). In sum, like the modern-day Turkic peoples, the Xiongnu (who had haplogroups C2, Q, N and R1a1), the Sakhas (characterised by haplogroup N), the Yenisei Qirghiz (characterised by haplogroup R1a1), the Tiele (who had haplogroups C2, N, O3, and Q, among others), the Turkmens (who had haplogroups Q, J, R1a1 and N), and the Qipchaqs (who probably had haplogroup R1b1a1a1 (R1b-M73) and C2, among others) possessed different representative haplogroups and exhibited dissimilar haplogroup compositions. It is therefore likely that the early and medieval Turkic peoples themselves did not form a homogeneous entity and that some of them, non-Turkic by origin, had become Turkicised at some point in history. Accordingly, one may also suggest that many of the modern Turkic-speaking populations, who exhibit more diverse haplogroup compositions, are not direct descendants of the early Turkic peoples (Table 3).
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Post by Admin on Feb 1, 2022 1:08:04 GMT
On a final note, one should remember that medieval Chinese historians did not classify the Inner Asian tribes into Turkic-speaking and Mongolic-speaking groups. Likewise, Muslim writers generally viewed the Mongols and other nonーTurkic Inner Asian tribes as a branch of Turks. Genetic studies corroborate the fact that drawing a clear line between the historical Mongolic peoples and the Turkic peoples is unrealistic, since the two shared such haplogroups as C2, N, Q, O3 and even R1a1. The geneticists who analysed the DNA of the Xiongnu specimens from the Egyin Gol necropolis and that of modern Mongolians suggest that ‘the impact of the succession of Turkic and Mongolian confederations on the territory of the current Mongolia was a cultural or linguistic process rather than a migratory and/or genetic one’ (Keyser-Tracqui et al. 2006: 279). Similarly, a comparative study of the autosomal DNA of the Mongols and the Tsaatan, a Turkic people residing in northern Mongolia, also concludes that the two, along with the Sakhas, form the same cluster and are genetically distinct from other world populations (Brissenden et al. 2015: 82). Finally, an extensive study of the genetic legacy of the Turkic nomads across Eurasia based on autosomal DNA analysis reveals that the source populations for the Turkic nomads who spread ‘Asian genes’ to non-Turkic peoples were (the ancestors of modern-day) Tuvinians, Mongols and Buryats, despite the fact that the latter two are Mongolic (Yunusbayev et al. 2015).81 In sum, one should note that the early eastern Turkic peoples wneighbouring Mongolic peoples than to various later Turkic peoples of central and western Eurasia.
Table 3 The Y-DNA haplogroups of early and medieval Turkic peoples
Xiongnu C2, N, Q, and R1a1, among others
Sakha N
Dingling/Tiele/Uighurs C2, N, O3, Q, among others (if their modern
descendants are Western Yugurs, Naimans,
Tuvinians, Sakhas, and Buryats, among others)
Kök Türks R1a1 (if they were related to Yenisei Qirghiz)
Q, among others (if their descendants were
Önggüt) N and C2, among others (if their descendants
are/were Tuvinians/Muma Tujue (Türks))
Yenisei Qirghiz R1a1 (the Yenisei Indo-European pastoralists)
R1a1 (Tien Shan Qirghiz)
Önggüt Q, among others
Naiman C3 and O3, among others
Qipchaqs R1b, among others (if their modern descendants are the Kazakh Kypshak tribe)
C2, among others (if their modern descendants are the Kazakhs)
Turkmens Q, J, R1a1, and N, among others
Conclusion In this article, we conducted a comparative analysis of textual information provided in Chinese histories and genetic survey data on the origins, identity and physiognomy of the early and medieval Turkic peoples. As discussed above, the official Chinese histories do not view the Turkic peoples such as the Tiele/Uighur, Kök Türks (Tujue) and Qirghiz as belonging to a single uniform entity called ‘Turks’. Instead, they describe them as forming separate identities. The Chinese histories also depict the Turkic-speaking peoples as typically possessing East/Inner Asian physiognomy, as well as occasionally having West Eurasian physiognomy. DNA studies corroborate such characterisation of the Turkic peoples.82 While it is true that insufficient amounts of ancient DNA samples have been studied, one may still infer from the given genetic data that the early and medieval Turkic peoples possessed dissimilar sets of Y-chromosome haplogroups with different representative haplogroups, some of which were of West Eurasian origin. This means that the various Turkic peoples did not have a common patrilineal origin or uniform physiognomy. Notably, the Xiongnu themselves, whether they were a Turkic-speaking entity or not, were a hybrid ere in all likelihood genetically closer to their people composed of carriers of both East and Inner Eurasian haplogroups C2, N, and Q and West Eurasian haplogroup R1a1. The analysis of genetic survey data on the Turkic peoples also allows us to speculate on the Turkic Urheimat. We suggest that it was a geographical region where the carriers of haplogroups C2, N, Q and R1a1 could intermix, since these haplogroups are carried by various past and modern-day Turkic peoples in eastern Inner Asia and the Xiongnu. It has been suggested that the early Turkic peoples probably had contact with Indo-European, Uralic, Yeniseian, and Mongolic groups in their formative period (Golden 2006: 139). As nonーlinguists, we are unqualified to discuss the origin of the Turkic languages. However, drawing on the findings of DNA studies, we are inclined to think that certain similarities that exist between the Turkic languages and the Mongolic, Tungusic and Uralic languages are at least partly associated with haplogroups C2 and N, among others. More specifically, we conjecture that the Turkic languages came into existence as a result of the fusion of Uralic groups (characterized by a high frequency of haplogroup N subclades) and Proto-Mongolic groups (characterized by a high frequency of haplogroup C2) who also merged with other linguistic groups, including Yeniseian speakers (characterized by a high frequency of haplogroup Q like the Kets) and Indo-European speakers (characterized by a high frequency of haplogroups R1a1).83 The best candidate for the Turkic Urheimat would then be northern and western Mongolia and Tuva, where all these haplogroups could have intermingled, rather than eastern and southern Mongolia or the Yenisei River and the Altai Mountains regions in Russia.84 Finally, we suggest that the Turkicisation of central and western Eurasia was the product of multiple processes of language diffusion85 that involved not only originally Turkic-speaking groups, but also Turkicised (Indo-European) groups. That is, the earliest Turkic groups first Turkicised some non-Turkic groups residing in Mongolia and beyond. Then both Turkic and ‘Turkicised’ groups Turkicised non-Turkic tribes (who were mostly carriers of haplogroups R1a1) residing in the Kazakh steppes and beyond. Through multiple processes, including the Mongol conquest, the members of the extended Turkic entity spread the Turkic languages across Eurasia. They Turkicised various non-Turkic peoples of central and western Eurasia, including those in the Central Asian oases (who were carriers of haplogroups R1a1 and J, among others). Importantly, the Turkmens, who were themselves made up of both original Turkic and Turkicised elements (carriers of haplogroups Q, J, R1a1 and N, among others), reached Anatolia and Turkicised the local populations carrying haplogroups J, R1b, G, E, R1a1 and T, among others, who have now become ‘Turks’.
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