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Post by Admin on Apr 1, 2019 17:48:11 GMT
The Cushitic-like people who built Great Zimbabwe are the Lemba. The genetic evidence revealed Yamnaya-like male-dominated gene flow from Semitic immigrants from the Levant who formed founding groups for the Lemba and they admixed with Bantu neighbors. The genetic studies have found no Semitic female contribution to the Lemba gene pool. 30% of Lemba Y chromosomes can be labeled of Bantu origin (Haplogroup E), and the majority (70%) of Semitic origin with Haplogroup J. The ancestors of the Shona and the Lemba lived in the region where the Gokomere culture flourished and both groups claim that their ancestors built Great Zimbabwe. The maShona, the waRozwi and the Lemba peoples emerged in the modern era from the ancient Bantu people who inhabited the area of Great Zimbabwe. There was no common ethnic identity among the peoples now forming the Shona of today until the 19th century. The Lemba people's dubious Jewish identity was also invented by Christian missionaries.  Lying in the interior of tropical southern Africa are hundreds of stone ruins. The largest of them is situated near Masvingo, and is known as "Great Zimbabwe". A dozen or so other sites were obviously satellite settlements of secondary importance (Popham, 1904; White, 1903 and 1905; Hall, 1904; Layland, 1972). The majority of those structures lie within the country which is now called Zimbabwe, although the area also includes Manyikeni and Chibuene (on or near the Mozambique coast) and Mapungubwe (just across the Limpopo). Brief references were made to the Great Zimbabwe Ruins in 16th century Portuguese writings (de Barros, 1552; McCall-Theal, 1900). Two of those accounts mention an inscription above the entrance to the building, written in characters not known to the (well educated) Arab merchants who had seen it (McCall-Theal, 1900). All buildings were unroofed, and were constructed using dry-stone walling techniques, i.e. without any cement or mortar, meaning that the granite bricks had to be carefully shaped and trimmed so as to fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. Some of the stone walls were ten metres high (photo: Gayre, 1972, facing p.229); many of them incorporated chevron, herring-bone or chequered patterns. A set of steps leading into Great Zimbabwe constitutes a true work of art: each course curves out of the flanking walls into the entrance, with the penetration of the curves increasing as the steps are ascended (photo: Gayre, 1972, p.56).  Many thousands of prehistoric gold-workings are scattered round the territory of modern-day Zimbabwe – over an area, in fact, similar to that containing the ruins (Gayre 1972, p.182). Some calculations indicate that more than 20 million ounces were extracted (Paver, 1950; Gayre, 1972, pp. 49, 179-181, 229; Murdock, 1959). The ancient gold mines required a measure of engineering skill, containing horizontal as well as deep vertical shafts (Bent, 1896; Gayre, 1972, pp. 179-181). Furnaces, crucibles and various tools found in some of the stone ruins indicate that the gold ornaments and jewellery accompanying them, were produced locally (Layland, 1972, p.229).  The inhabitants of ancient Zimbabwe were skilled water engineers, constructing a number of dams feeding complex systems of irrigation channels (Layland, 1972). In addition, regularly spaced terraces, which can still be viewed today, were carved into many of the hills in northeastern Zimbabwe (Hall, 1909; Gayre, 1972, pp. 85-87). Layland (1972) estimated that the area of ancient terracing there extended over 6500 square kilometres. Ann Kritzinger (2010, 2012 and 2017) argues that the stone-lined 'pit structures' in the Nyanga area were not used to keep dwarf cattle (as is widely believed), but were hydraulic tanks designed to recover gold by gravity concentration (Kritzinger 2010, Figures 2 & 3, and 2017, p.34). They were skilfully engineered freestanding structures built up from bedrock. Their entrance tunnels were deliberately curved – so they could well have served as 'point bars' where heavy metals fell out of suspension. Soil and rock samples taken from the tunnels and from exit-drains were assayed for gold – and many of them showed quantities which were too high to be normal, background levels (Kritzinger 2010 and 2012). |
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Post by Admin on Apr 1, 2019 18:58:29 GMT
The Lemba – and genetic evidence of Semitic ancestry The Lemba tribe in the extreme north of South Africa could well be the remnant of a Semitic community which once occupied Zimbabwe, and which managed to flee when that territory was overrun (Gayre, 1972; le Roux, 2003; McNaughton, 2012). As early as the latter 19th century, missionaries had noticed and were commenting on their Semitic features and customs (Junod, 1908 – citing an article written in 1894; Wessmann, 1908; Wheelwright, 1905). The Lemba have an oral tradition that their male ancestry originally comprised "white people from over the sea" who came to southeast Africa – from a country which boasted large cities – in order to obtain gold (van Warmelo, 1966, pp. 281-282; Hammond Tooke, 1937; Junod, 1927; le Roux, 2003, pp. 210-224). That oral tradition has been supported by genetic analyses. A preliminary study by Spurdle and Jenkins (1996) focussed on the frequency, in the Lemba and in other populations, of a Y chromosome Alu Polymorphism. This involves the recent insertion of an Alu family member onto the Y chromosome, and is an extremely useful marker for population studies because sequence data suggest that such a mutation event is unique in human evolution (Hammer 1994). Thus, it can usually be assumed that it partitions Y chromosomes into distinct genealogical groups.  Their results indicated that at least 50% of the Lemba Y chromosomes are Semitic in origin, approximately 40% are Negroid, while the ancestry of the remainder could not be resolved (Spurdle and Jenkins, 1996). In an attempt to distinguish a specifically Jewish from other Semitic ancestry in the Lemba, a subsequent project (Thomas et al., 2000) analysed 399 Y chromosomes for six microsatellites (which mutate relatively frequently) and six biallelic markers (including Y Alu Polymorphisms, i.e. representing “unique events”). The ability to identify high-resolution haplotypes comprising linked markers mutating at different rates makes the Y chromosome a powerful instrument for investigating relationships between geographically distant populations. Those 12 polymorphisms led to the identification of the Cohen Modal Haplotype – which is dominant in the Jewish priesthood, and which may be more generally characteristic of Hebraic ancestry. Various southern African and Middle Eastern population-groups were examined during the project.  In South Africa, samples were collected from paternally unrelated but otherwise random Lemba males in the Louis Trichardt area in the Northern Province (90 individuals) and in Sekhukuneland in Mpumalanga in the east of the country (46 individuals). Just over two thirds of the Lemba Y chromosomes were designated as having a Semitic origin. In particular, the Cohen Modal Haplotype was identified in a significant number of Lemba males, occurring most often in their Buba clan, which is acknowledged as being the oldest one, and the most authoritative (Thomas et al., 2000). In a later investigation, Soodyall (2013) found no genetic evidence for a (specifically) Jewish ancestry of the Lemba, but acknowledged the likelihood of a "stronger link with Middle Eastern populations".  Additional Semitic customs and features of the Lemba The MaLemba refuse to eat pork, rabbit, hare, carrion and scaleless fish, exactly as laid down in Leviticus chapter 11 (Gayre, 1972, pp. 126-137, 65, 199-204). When preparing meat for consumption, they always kill in the kosher manner by bleeding (Gayre, 1967 and 1970; van Warmelo, 1940). The Lembas also have a distinctive New Moon ceremony (le Roux, 2003, pp. 172-174, 292). In addition, Magdel le Roux (pp. 174, 293) mentions a ritual of sacrifice that the Lembas call the "Pesah", which seems similar in many ways to the Jewish Pesach or Passover. A number of words and clan-names used by Lembas must have had a Semitic origin (Hammond Tooke, 1937; Mullan, 1969; Gayre, 1972, pp. 163, 135, 66, 103), e.g. Sadiki, Hasane, Hamisi, Haji, Bakeri, Sharifo and Saidi (which is one of their words for "master"). Furthermore, some Lembas possess aquiline noses and narrow, non-Bantu lips (pictures: Frobenius, 1938, p.162) . Here, it is relevant to mention that there are also indications of Semitic blood, although more diluted, in Vendas and Karangas – implying that traces of the original Zimbabwean genetic material survive in these other communities too. The Reverend A.A. Jaques (1931) tells us that Lemba prayers were ended by saying "Amin" - which is of course a Jewish custom as well as a Christian one. However, their liturgy bore absolutely no resemblance to any of the Christian liturgies. On the contrary, Jaques cited what might be a reference to Moses in one of the Lemba prayers. He also mentioned that the Lemba had a taboo about eating with the left hand. Van Warmelo (1966) recorded other examples of Lemba prayers uttered in a completely alien, non-Bantu tongue. Those devotees had absolutely no idea what the words meant – but claimed nevertheless that they represented the language of their forefathers; (also see le Roux pp. 164, 176). Before the spread of Western health services, the MaLemba enjoyed a reputation for their outstanding medical knowledge (Trevor, 1930; Jaques, 1931). In particular, they were responsible for introducing the practice of circumcision into South Africa (Junod, 1927; Schapera, 1966; Stayt, 1931), which is relevant because stone phallic symbols found at various Zimbabwean ruins definitely represent circumcised organs (le Roux, 2003, p.169; photo: Gayre, 1972, p.143; Nyamutswa, 2017). Indeed, this is only one of many apparent links between that tribe and Zimbabwe. |
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Post by Admin on Apr 2, 2019 18:04:20 GMT
Other pointers linking the Lembas with ancient Zimbabwe The MaLemba claim that their ancestors constructed Great Zimbabwe (Parfitt, 2000, pp.1-2); in fact, there is evidence that they continued to build in stone even after they had fled across the Limpopo (Gayre, 1972, pp. 200-201; le Roux, 2003, pp. 25, 53). During the early 20th century, the Lembas were markedly different in many ways from the other tribes around them. In particular, the Lembas were renowned for their mining and metallurgical skills (Hammond Tooke, 1937; van Warmelo, 1940; Junod, 1927; Gayre, 1972, p.200; Murdock, 1959; Trevor, 1930; Mourant et al., 1978). For many decades, the Lembas continued to provide neighbouring tribes with metal tools and containers – using copper obtained from deposits in their area (Frobenius, 1938; Stayt, 1931). But, not surprisingly – even as early as the 18th century, Lemba workmanship could not match the standards displayed by the stonework and gold ornaments found at Great Zimbabwe. The Lembas bury their dead in an extended position, in contrast to the "crouched" posture adopted by other Bantu peoples (le Roux, 2003, pp. 50, 95-96; Stayt, 1931). In that respect, the Lemba custom resembles the one which was followed by the ancient Zimbabweans – whose graves can readily be identified by the presence of gold jewellery (Hall and Neal, 1902; Mullan, 1969; Murdock, 1959; Layland, 1972; Gayre, 1972, pp.103-104, 126, 111). Stone spindle whorls found at Great Zimbabwe indicate that cotton was spun and woven with greater sophistication there, than was displayed in other regions occupied by Bantu tribes. Cotton is of course not indigenous to southern Africa, but a few (now wild) cotton trees nevertheless seem to have been planted near that ancient city (Gayre, 1972, pp. 52-57, 63; Hall and Neal, 1902; Hall, 1909). Thus, it is relevant to note that (unlike most other Bantu) the Lembas did wear cotton garments in the past (Gayre, 1972, pp. 52, 63-64; Hammond Tooke, 1937; van Warmelo, 1966, p.281). Two reports cited by le Roux (2003, pp. 46-47) are consistent with the theory that the Lemba (or their ancestors) created the ancient Zimbabwean civilization. William Bolts (1777) had been sent to southeast Africa by the Austrian Habsburg authorities to search for gold; he wrote: "A people called MaLembe resort to [Sofala] at stated periods from a country ... said to be several weeks' journey [away]". Punt (1975) refers to another letter sent to Vienna in 1777 by Bolts which described "a big and important city called Zimbabwe where gold was mined and gold articles were manufactured by a tribe known as the BaLemba". And in a later account compiled by Anderson (1887) after visiting the area, we read: "The natives state that the gold was worked and the forts were built by white men who once occupied this country, and whom they call Abberlomba"; (elsewhere in his book, Anderson spells this "Abberlemba"). The old Lemba language was a variation of Karanga – i.e., the dialect of Shona which is spoken today in the area around Great Zimbabwe and Masvingo. This supports the Lemba tradition that they migrated from that region. If, earlier, there had been a mass immigration from the Middle East to southeast Africa, then it is likely that males would have outnumbered females, such that wives and concubines would have been taken from the local population – with this process continuing for several centuries; indeed, this was reflected in the genetic analyses carried out by Spurdle and Jenkins (1996). It is a well-known fact that children learn their mother’s language more easily than their father’s one, which could explain why that community eventually adopted the Karanga language. The ancient irrigation systems in the Zoutpansberg in South Africa have been described by Trevor (1930), and may be compared with those found in Nyanga in northeast Zimbabwe. Trevor believes that those in the Zoutpansberg had previously been utilised by the BaVenda people (with whom the MaLemba were closely associated).  Conclusions – the two rival theories The current 'consensus' in academic circles is that the ancient Zimbabwean civilization was created by Shona-speaking people – based on the fact that in recent decades nothing whatsoever has been published to support the alternative (Semitic-based) theory. However, after the identification – in the late 1990s – of Jewish DNA in the Lembas, it is now appropriate to reopen the debate. In particular, we cannot rule out the Lemba claim that their ancestors came from overseas and settled in southeast Africa with the intention of mining and exploiting its gold deposits. If, however, we insist on rejecting this possibility, then we will probably need to find another explanation for various observations and facts recorded, not just by Thomas (and by Spurdle) regarding DNA – but also by van Warmelo, Junod, Jaques and Trevor. All of these writers, incidentally, may be described as 'neutral' in the sense that they were not proposing any theory regarding the origins of Great Zimbabwe. The Mankind Quarterly, Spring/Summer 2012 – Vol. 52 (nos. 3-4), pp. 323-335 |
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Post by Admin on Apr 3, 2019 17:57:54 GMT
 Background. Previous historical, anthropological and genetic data provided overwhelming support for the Semitic origins of the Lemba, a Bantu-speaking people in southern Africa. Objective. To revisit the question concerning genetic affinities between the Lemba and Jews. Methods. Y-chromosome variation was examined in two Lemba groups: one from South Africa (SA) and, for the first time, a group from Zimbabwe (Remba), to re-evaluate the previously reported Jewish link. Results. A sample of 261 males (76 Lemba, 54 Remba, 43 Venda and 88 SA Jews) was initially analysed for 16 bi-allelic and 6 short tandem repeats (STRs) that resulted in the resolution of 102 STR haplotypes distributed across 13 haplogroups. The non-African component in the Lemba and Remba was estimated to be 73.7% and 79.6%, respectively. In addition, a subset of 91 individuals (35 Lemba, 24 Remba, 32 SA Jews) with haplogroup J were resolved further using 6 additional bi-allelic markers and 12 STRs to screen for the extended Cohen modal haplotype (CMH). Although 24 individuals (10 Lemba and 14 SA Jews) were identified as having the original CMH (six STRs), only one SA Jew harboured the extended CMH. Conclusions. While it was not possible to trace unequivocally the origins of the non-African Y chromosomes in the Lemba and Remba, this study does not support the earlier claims of their Jewish genetic heritage. S Afr Med J 2013;103(12 Suppl 1):1009-1013. DOI:10.7196/SAMJ.7297 |
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Post by Admin on Apr 5, 2019 18:36:20 GMT
The Lemba have a strong oral history of non-African origins, and a culture similar to that practiced by Jewish/Arabic people. They live among other larger groups of people in southern Africa, mainly the Venda (Limpopo Province, South Africa (SA)) and Northern Sotho or Pedi in Sekhukhuneland (Mpumalanga, SA) and among the Shona (Kalanga) in the southern parts of Zimbabwe. While some Lemba, particularly those from SA, claim Jewish origins,1 the Jewish link is not universally accepted, and there have been several studies suggesting Islamic connections with Arabs.2-4 Moreover, some of the Lemba who live in Zimbabwe, referred to here as Remba (their name for themselves, since there is no ‘L’ sound in their spoken language Shona), identify with Arabic ancestry, and several clan names in use are Arabic in origin.5  According to van Warmelo,5 the ancestors of the Lemba came from a huge town somewhere across the seas, where they were skilled in metalwork, pottery, textiles and ship-building – presumably the same place Mathivha1 refers to as Sena or Sa’na. They came to this country to trade their goods, especially for gold. They began leaving some of their men behind with unsold cargo and thus established posts. They moved further and further inland and became well known with the locals, but did not mix with them as they deemed themselves superior. A few genetic studies have attempted to elucidate the ancestry of the Lemba. When ‘classical’ serogenetic markers (unpublished) and mitochondrial DNA restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) were used, no differences between the Lemba and other southern African populations could be detected.6 However, Y-chromosome RFLP studies conducted by Spurdle and Jenkins7 , 8 provided the first definitive evidence that the male gene pool of SA Lemba was derived, in part, from non-African sources. Based on the 49a/TaqI system, 53% of Y chromosomes in the Lemba were assigned to haplotypes that were also found at considerable frequencies in SA Indians (38%) and in Jewish populations from SA, Europe and Yemen (>50%). Although Spurdle and Jenkins8 could not distinguish between Jewish and non-Jewish Y chromosomes at this level of resolution, they concluded that the non-African Y chromosomes in the Lemba were of Semitic origin. Using a combination of 6 short tandem repeat (STR) markers in conjunction with 6 bi-allelic markers, Thomas et al.9 were able to further resolve the Y chromosomes in the Lemba. They found that a particular Y-chromosome haplotype – referred to as the Cohen modal haplotype (CMH) – was present in the Lemba at a frequency of 8.8% (12/136). The CMH had previously been reported at frequencies of 44.9% in Ashkenazi and 56.1% in Sephardic Cohanim (descendants of Jewish priests) and among Ashkenazi and Sephardic Israelites at 13.2% and 9.8%, respectively.10 Thomas et al.10 estimated that the CMH originated approximately 2 000 - 3 200 years ago and suggested that this Y-chromosome haplotype was useful in tracing Jewish ancestry. The CMH was subsequently shown to segregate on the background of haplogroup J-12f2a and was present in samples of Ashkenazi, Sephardic and Kurdish Jews (without considering religious status) at frequencies of 7.6%, 6.4% and 10.1%, respectively.11 Increasing the resolution of Y-chromosome analysis that included 75 binary markers and 22 STR markers, Hammer et al.12 genotyped 122 Ashkenazi and 93 non-Ashkenazi Cohanim to further resolve the paternal ancestry of Jewish priests. Haplogroup J, defined by the presence of the 12f2a/M304 mutation, was resolved further into 16 sub-haplogroups defined by 15 binary markers. A new mutation, P58 T→C, defined the most common lineage J-P58* in the Cohanim and it was on this haplogroup background that the original CMH defined on the basis of the 6-STR marker system was found.10 The inclusion of 6 additional STRs extended this haplotype to 12 STRs which was subsequently referred to as the extended CMH.12 Of the 99 J-P58* Y chromosomes they examined, 87 carried the CMH using the 6-STR marker system. However, when the 12-STR marker system was used, only 43 Y chromosomes were found to have the extended CMH. Also, whereas the original CMH was found in several Near Eastern populations, the extended CMH, together with its two closely related haplotypes, had a much more restricted distribution and was only found among Cohanim (29.8%) and Israelites (1.5%), but not among the Levites and non-Jewish populations surveyed.12 Given that the higher resolution at both the haplogroup and haplotype level helped refine the definition of the CMH, its frequency among the Cohanim, and its distribution in other Jewish and non-Jewish populations, the present study revisited the question concerning genetic affinities between the Lemba and Jews. This was done following screening for the extended CMH in a sample of SA Lemba and Zimbabwean Remba. |
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