Bell Beaker Phenomenon

Fig. 1.
Dolmen de las Ruines, Catalonia. Photo courtesy of B.S.P.

There are ∼35,000 presently extant European megaliths, a term which is derived from Greek μέγας (mégas), “big,” and λίϑος (líthos), “stone.” These include megalithic tombs, standing stones, stone circles, alignments, and megalithic buildings or temples. Most of these were constructed during the Neolithic and the Copper Ages and are located in coastal areas. Their distribution is along the so-called Atlantic façade, including Sweden, Denmark, North Germany, The Netherlands, Belgium, Scotland, England, Wales, Ireland, northwest France, northern Spain, and Portugal, and in the Mediterranean region, including southern and southeastern Spain, southern France, the Islands of Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta and the Balearics, Apulia, northern Italy, and Switzerland. Interestingly, they share similar or even identical architectonic features throughout their distribution. Megalithic graves were built as dolmens and as passage or gallery graves (Figs. 1 and 2). Thousands of anthropogenic erected stones either stand isolated in the landscapes or were arranged as circles or in rows. There is evidence all across Europe for an orientation of the graves toward the east or southeast in the direction of the rising Sun. The question therefore arises whether there was a single, original source from which a megalithic movement spread over Europe or regional phenomena developed independently due to a similar set of conditions. Earlier research provided two very different answers to the question of origins. During the later 19th and the first two-thirds of the 20th centuries, archaeologists such as Montelius (1), Childe (2, 3), and Daniel (4) proposed models of a single origin of megaliths from which they then expanded by a process of diffusion. Thus, Montelius (1), in the Ex Oriente Lux Zeitgeist of the late 19th century, advocated for the Near East as a potential region of origin. Childe (5), building on Montelius, supported the idea of a diffusion of “oriental culture” by maritime exchange. According to Childe (6), the expansion was supported by a megalithic religion of migrant priestly elites who settled down long enough among local societies for the new ideas to take root. He proposed a route from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic northwest across the Pyrenean isthmus and an onward dissemination of the megalithic tradition from there to Britain and then later over the sea route around Spain and Portugal. Later, Childe (2, 3) expanded his theory about the spreading of a megalithic religion along the coastlines of western Europe by way of missionaries or prospectors. With the introduction of radiocarbon dates and processual approaches, the idea of an independent emergence of the same kind of stone architecture in several regions arose, because early C14 results did not support the diffusion model. Renfrew (7) was the first to exploit the new chronological results and proposed five independent nucleus centers, including Portugal, Andalusia, Brittany, southwest England, Denmark, and possibly Ireland for the emergence of megaliths in Europe. The model of an independent emergence of megaliths in several regions and sedentary, immobile farming communities has remained dominant in the research literature since then (8⇓–10). However, since the 1970s, the number of C14 dates of megaliths has expanded enormously. It is therefore timely to test the two prevailing interpretative models in the light of this new evidence.


Fig. 2.
Haväng dolmen, Scania. Strikingly, the architectonic concepts of megaliths are similar or even identical all over Europe. Photo courtesy of B.S.P.

For this end, we investigated the fine-grain temporal pattern for the emergence of megaliths in Europe with the analysis of 2,410 available radiocarbon dates taken from premegalithic, megalithic, and nonmegalithic but contemporaneous contexts (Dataset S1). Radiocarbon dating is a two-stage process involving isotope measurements and the calibration against similar measurements made on dendrochronologically dated wood. For our time horizon, it normally provides precision ranges of 100 y to 300 y with 95% probability. To build a chronological megalithic sequence as precisely as possible, we adopted a Bayesian modeling approach, which is applied here to a wide region, using the program OxCal 4.1 (11, 12). We combined measurements with archaeological information relating to stratigraphical contexts, associated cultural material, and information on the burial rites, to narrow the time intervals for the calibrated ranges. In a first important step, we reviewed critically the 2,410 samples, including measurements from the 1960s up to the present, to determine the quality and reliability of the sample contexts. For each site with available radiocarbon results and a suitable sequence, we constructed one-phased or multiphased models with phase boundaries (Datasets S2 and S3) taking into consideration the detailed stratigraphic information (13). The posterior density estimates expressed as probability distributions in the text and in the figures are given by convention in italics to distinguish them clearly from simple calibrated radiocarbon dates.

Results
The radiocarbon dates suggest that the first megalithic graves in Europe were closed small structures or dolmens built aboveground with stone slabs and covered by a round or long mound of earth or stone. These graves emerge in the second half of the fifth millennium calibrated years (cal) BC within a time interval of 4794 cal BC to 3986 cal BC (95.4%; 4770 cal BC to 4005 cal BC, 68.2%) (Dataset S3, M7-2 to M29-4), which can be reduced most probably to 200 y to 300 y, in northwest France, the Channel Islands, Catalonia, southwestern France, Corsica, and Sardinia. Taking the associated cultural material into consideration, megalithic graves from Andalusia, Galicia, and northern Italy presumably belong to this first stage (Fig. 3). There are no radiocarbon dates available from the early megalithic graves in these regions, or their calibrated ranges show an onset extending into the fourth millennium cal BC, as is the case for Galicia. Of these regions, northwest France is the only one which exhibits monumental earthen constructions before the megaliths (SI Appendix, Fig. S2). The Passy graves in the Paris Basin have no megalithic chamber yet, but are impressive labor-intensive structures with a length of up to 280 m. These graves seem to be the earliest monumental graves in Europe; the first individual buried in the Passy necropolis died in 5061 cal BC to 4858 cal BC (95.4%; 5029 cal BC to 4946 cal BC, 68.2%) (Dataset S3, M1-4). Somewhat later, the first monumental graves emerge in Brittany, and especially in the region of Carnac, in the form of round tumuli covering pit burials, stone cists, and dry-wall chambers. The first building phase of the tumulus St. Michel in Carnac is dated to the time interval 4782 cal BC to 4594 cal BC (95.4; 4724 cal BC to 4618 cal BC, 68.2%) (Dataset S3, M4-2 to M4-4). The earliest megalithic grave chambers in Brittany, such as Tumiac, Kervinio, Castellic, St. Germain, Manio 5, Mané Hui, and Kerlescan (14⇓–16), emerge within this horizon as an architectonic feature of monumental long and round mounds. For these early megaliths, no radiocarbon determinations are available. It is only possible to limit the time interval of construction to the Ancient Castellic horizon based on the typochronological considerations of the grave goods and according to Ancient Castellic contexts with associated radiocarbon results ranging from 4794 cal BC to 3999 cal BC (95.4%; 4770 cal BC to 4034 cal BC, 68.2%) (Dataset S3, M7-2 to M7-7).



Fig. 3.
Map showing dates estimated for the start of megaliths in the different European regions, with 95% probability (68% probability in brackets). Italic bold type is used for date ranges of the posterior density estimates based on samples from megalithic contexts, regular bold type is used for simple calibrated radiocarbon dates from megalithic contexts, and regular italic type is used for the probabilities of the posterior density estimates associated with the earliest cultural material in the megaliths.

In Catalonia, in the Tavertet region, early megalithic graves emerged during the same time interval, even contemporaneous with the graves in Brittany. A reevaluation of the available radiocarbon results yielded a dating of the construction of these graves not before 4722 cal BC to 4068 cal BC (95.4%; 4581 cal BC to 4267 cal BC, 68.2%) (Dataset S3, M24-33). A part of these data exhibit an inbuilt age (Dataset S3, M24-28 to M24-32) (ref. 13, p. 128). On the northeastern side of the Pyrenees in southern France, early megaliths are either isolated in the landscape or arranged in necropolises as at Najac and Camp del Ginèbre. The unmodeled ranges of three radiocarbon results for human bones from the necropolis of Najac 4328 cal BC to 3979 cal BC (95.4%; 4318 cal BC to 3995 cal BC) (Dataset S1, 830 to 832) suggest burials within this time horizon. Along the central Mediterranean coasts and north Mediterranean islands of Sardinia and Corsica, small necropolises are found with early megalithic graves. The grave goods from the Li Muri necropolis on Sardinia are attributed to the Late Neolithic San Ciriaco horizon, and, according to the radiocarbon results from the San Ciriaco layers in the settlement of Contraguda, it is possible to limit the emergence of these graves to a time interval from 4733 cal BC to 3986 cal BC (95.4%; 4471 cal BC to 4005 cal BC, 68.2%) (Dataset S3, M29-1 to M29-4). There are further clusters with potential early megalithic graves documented in the central Mediterranean in northern Italy, for example, in La Vela-Trento, or Maddalena di Chiomonte-Torino and possibly Apulia (6). However, for these, there are no radiocarbon dates available yet. Based on the archaeological material, they are likely dated to the second half of the fifth millennium cal BC. From the southwest Iberian Peninsula in Andalusia, the Algarve, and the Alentejo, we find more of these possible early megaliths (17⇓–19).

In the northern half of the western Iberian Peninsula, there are early megaliths, concentrated mainly in Galicia. So far, these have been dated to the very end of the fifth millennium cal BC, if not later. Most of these dates are from charcoal, and many represent termini post quos values due to the inbuilt age of the wood or unsure contexts. From Chan de Cruz 1, a possible construction or usage date from ∼4080 cal BC (CSIC-642, 5210 ± 50 BP, 4144 cal BC to 3961 cal BC, 68.2%; 4230 cal BC to 3947 cal BC, 95.4%) (Dataset S1, 2014) is available.