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Post by Admin on Aug 1, 2023 3:24:10 GMT
Table 2. Other polymorphisms identified in blood group genes from Denisova and Neanderthals. The results of the analysis for each blood group system can be resumed as follows: ABO system. We found the most common phenotypes present in modern human populations: A1, B and O resulting from the combination of 3 different alleles (Fig 1). Two samples are heterozygous: Chagyrskaya 8 with group A1 (delG-AAAA/G-BAAA without C deletion at position 1061) and Vindija 33.19 with group B (delG-AAAA/G-BABB) and two are homozygous: Altaï with group A1 (G-BAAA/G-BAAA without C deletion at position 1061) and Denisova-3 with group O (delG-AAAA/delG-AAAA). H/Se system. All the samples present a common FUT1 allele. Concerning FUT2 locus, 3 alleles are found: the conventional functional FUT2*01 allele and two non-functional alleles: FUT2*01N.04 and FUT2*01N: c.714A, p.238stop. Although FUT2*01N.04 (Neanderthal Vindija and Chagyrskaya) is presently found in South East Asian and Oceanian populations [26–28], the latter allele, present in a single dose in Denisova-3, has never been described in modern humans [10, 11]. RH system. All of the backgrounds are based on the Dce (R0) haplotype as described in Africa [8] and we found only one complete Dce (R0) haplotype corresponding to the wild type described in modern human populations [8]. This complete R0 haplotype is present, at a single dose, in the Denisova-3 sample. The other haplotypes are variants encoding partial antigens D, c and e, which are missing some epitopes. All of these haplotypes, whether wild or variant, are related, phylogenetically speaking, to the African RHD*DIVa cluster [8]. From the three Neanderthal genomes, we have identified one potential novel RHD variant sharing typical SNP combinations assigned to this cluster (Fig 2). This variant exhibited the three SNPs that characterize the partial RHD*DIII type4 (or RHD*03.04 defined by c.186T, c.410T and c.455C), combined with two additional SNPs, c.602C>G and c.733G>C. This latter SNP defining the partial RHD*DUC2 allele. This new combination has been reported for the first time in only one modern Australian Aborigine [29] and occurred at a homozygous level in Altaï, and at least at a heterozygous level in Vindija and Chagyrskaya, with a normal RHD Exon-9 sequence (c.1170T, c.1193A) for all of them. This new RHD variants segregated with RHCE*ce allele variants although the RHD*DIII type4 has been reported to segregate with RHCE*Ce in modern humans [30]. Furthermore, we found the presence of at least three RHCE*ceEK variant alleles (c.48G>C, c.712A>G, c.787A>G and possibly c.800T>A) in Altai Neandertal, Vindija and Chagyrskaya, and two wild-type RHCE*ce in Denisova-3. Each of the Neanderthal archaic genomes has one other African RHCE*ce variant in cis. The RHCE*ceEK allele is mostly encountered in people of African descent [31]. When present in double dose, it encodes a rare phenotype defined by the absence of public antigen RH:-18. The anti-RH18 antibody has been reported to be responsible for haemolytic transfusion reactions and haemolytic disease of the foetus and new-born (HDFN) [32]. MNS, KEL, Duffy, Kidd and Diego systems. All four archaic samples present the deduced phenotype S-s+, K negative, Fy(a-b+), Jk (a+b-) and Di (a-b+) due to double-dose of MNS*04, KEL*02, FY*02, JK*01, DI*02 respectively. The three Neanderthals present the deduced phenotype Js(a+b-) of the Kell system due to double-dose of the ancestral KEL*06 allele, which is exclusive to African populations with 1% of Js(a+b-) phenotype [11]. On the contrary, Denisova 3 presents the deduced Js(a-b+) phenotype resulting from a double-dose of the antithetical KEL*07 allele. Lastly, the three Neanderthals are carriers of the Band 3-Memphis variant (according to rs5036).
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Post by Admin on Aug 2, 2023 3:27:16 GMT
Discussion Neanderthals are a human hunter-gatherer fossil population that lived in Eurasia between 250 kya and 38 kya before being totally replaced throughout their territory by Homo sapiens. Morphological features progressively evolved from their African ancestors (Homo heidelbergensis) and adapted to the cooler climate of Europe [33]. Their arrival in Europe marks a major cultural change with the importation of a new tool, well known in Africa since at least 1.5 mya and in the Levant, the handaxe [34]. The Denisovans are also an extinct human population but bone record is too fragmentary. Their "discovery" and phylogeny relies only on genetic studies [35, 36]. Neanderthal populations were never large, structured in small interconnected groups (about 20 individuals) that never outnumbered 70,000 individuals at the time of their "golden age" (the "emian" interglacial at OIS 5, around 120 kya) [37]. The small size of the population has to be correlated with the partial geographic isolation of Neanderthals caused by European climatic fluctuations during Pleistocene. It was at this time that the Neanderthals, well identified by singular morphological features, spread eastwards carrying the same lithic assemblages and technology as far east as the Altai mountains [38] where they encountered the Denisovans. Genetic data has also pointed out the low genetic diversity of Neanderthals, with a demographic depression peak in the Altai where a very consanguineous individual was found [14], and genetic continuity across Europe from 120 kya until the disappearance of the population around 40 kya [39]. This low variability is also visible in the morphology of the Neanderthals, which remained the same during the last 100 kya of their existence throughout their territory from the Atlantic to the Altai [40]. In this view, our results provide four main points relevant for the origin, vulnerabilities and dispersion of Neanderthal and Denisova (Figs 3 and 4). Fig 3. Erythroid blood group distribution from Denisova and Neanderthal archaic genomes. Branching matches nuclear DNA tree topology [43]. Blue, Neanderthal lineage; red, Denisovan lineage. Made with Natural Earth. Free vector and raster map data @ naturalearthdata.com.
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Post by Admin on Aug 4, 2023 21:28:49 GMT
Fig 4. Introgression scan of modern humans in the RHD region. Introgression tracts were called at confidence > = 0.2 and <0.5 (15.7 Kb, light purple) and confidence > = 0.5 and <0.9 (4.6 Kb, dark purple) in 5 haplotypes from 2 HGDP-CEPH populations (1: Papuans Sepik; 2: Brahuis). Alleles carried by these haplotypes at 5 key SNPs for the RHD*DIII type 4 with c.602G and DUC2 are shown in green or orange, whether they are the ancestral or derived allele in the human lineage. The bottom panel shows the position of these SNPs on the RHD map. Consolidation of an African origin for Neanderthal and Denisova First, the analysis of archaic blood groups anchors the lineage of Eurasian Neanderthals and Denisovans to Africa via: the absence of the antigen combination RhC, RhE, K, Fya, Jkb and S (14% of sub-Saharan African populations, 0.06% in non-African populations [10]), the presence of a double-dose of ancestral forms of the RH, Kell, Duffy, Kidd, MNS and Diego blood groups (respectively the haplotype Dce/Dce, KEL*02/*02, KEL*06/*06, FY*02/*02, JK*01/*01, MNS*04/*04 and Memphis form of Band 3 system [8, 41, 42], and RHD, RHCE variants phylogenetically linked or presently exclusive to African clusters and populations [31]. These features are in accordance with a Neanderthal and Denisovan gene pool pre-dating the exit of Homo sapiens from Africa [43]. A (mysterious) genetic link between Neanderthals and Australia The new partial RHD allele, RHD*DIII type4 with c.602G and c.733C, reported in the three Neanderthal individuals, and not in Denisova 3, was unknown in modern humans until 2019 and its description as a new variant in an individual from the First Nation of Australia with a RHD Exon-9 deletion or rearrangement with RHCE Exon-9 [29]. Thus, this polymorphism is not a new variant in the historical sense of the term, as it was already present around 100 kya in Neanderthals. This result fuels the discussion about admixture events between the different lineages and also about the early dispersal of Homo sapiens via the Arabian Peninsula [44] towards Australia [45] and Oceania [46]. In order to assess whether the Neanderthal RHD*DIII type4 with c.602G and c.733C arose in modern humans from shared ancestry or introgression, we have modelled high-coverage modern chromosomes from Asia and Oceania (HGDP-CEPH collection, publicly available, [47]) as a mosaic of modern and archaic states using a hidden-Markov model (see S2 File for detailed methods). We found a probable introgressed tract of 15.7 Kb spanning over 4 exons of RHD in 5 individuals: 2 HGDP-Brahuis and 3 HGDP-Sepik Papuans (Fig 4). The 3 Sepik Papuans are heterozygous carriers of the derived allele at rs150073306 which defines the DUC2 allele (raising thus the MAF of the derived allele nearly to 19% in that population—see S2 File), for which Altai is homozygous. When phased, there is an almost identical haplotype to Altai and the Australian Aborigine in Papuan HGDP00546. A parsimonious hypothesis to explain the relic of a RHD haplotype common amongst all Neanderthals in 2 modern Oceanians only, would suggest that the RHD*DIII type4 with c.602G and c.733C profile have been carried by Levantine Neanderthals and passed to modern humans before 65 kya and the route towards SouthEast Asia [48, 49]. This assumption remains however speculative as the archaic tract was called at a low confidence level (>20%). A shorter tract (4.6Kb) was still called at a confidence level of >50% but not at higher confidence thresholds (>90%). Further analyses would be required to validate our assumption. The signature of environmental pressure Our analysis of the ABO and FUT2 genes supports the fact that pathogens have played a major role in the survival and selection of genetic variants in modern and archaic hominins [50]. The molecular bases of the archaic ABO phenotypes, particularly for A and B groups, are identical to those found in non-human primates, which confirms an ancient balanced selection shared by Primate species [51]. Noteworthy is the presence of two non-secretor FUT2 polymorphisms in Neanderthal and Denisovan individuals. To date, the non-secretor phenotype has not been found in non-human primates [51] and shown to confer more resistance to some viruses with a notable resistance to Norovirus (Norwalk-like, Caliciviridae family) infection [52–54], which is a major cause of acute gastroenteritis worldwide. Given the short existence of the Norwalk-like virus in humans (post-Neolithic [55]), two scenarios would explain the occurrence of the non-secretor trait in archaic humans. FUT2 could have evolved neutrally in hominins before the late occurrence of selective pressure, in the same way as for glucose transporters (GLUT 2 and 12) and G6PD2 with malaria [56]. Or, given that hominids likely hosted some viruses [57], a Norwalk-like virus (or a sister group) could have already existed 90,000 years ago across Eurasia, causing enough mortality in young children to select two convergent FUT2 alleles. Note that the occurrence of the Neanderthal non-secretor allele in Oceanians [26–28] remains open. Demographic ‘fragility’ Lastly, our study highlights unfavorable characteristics that can lead to "demographic fragility". This fragility can be evoked on the basis of two elements: a low genetic diversity and the possible presence of HDFN. Indeed, the large number of shared alleles by the four archaic genomes despite their geographical and temporal distribution may be related to the deduced inbreeding situation in Neanderthals [14–16, 58], known to be a source of low adaptability. Meanwhile, the Neanderthal RH allele variants encode for partial RhD, Rhc and Rhe antigens, only Denisova 3 presents a complete form in terms of epitopes, such as they are described in their "wild" forms in modern humans. Partial RhD, Rhc and Rhe antigens lacking epitopes may induce an immune response when exposed to complete antigens [59, 60]. Moreover, when the RHCE*ceEK allele is present in a double dose (a situation which may turn out to be frequent in view of its presence in the 3 Neanderthals), in addition to the presence of partial Rhc and Rhe antigens, it encodes a phenotype defined by the absence of an Rh antigen named RH18. Today, this antigen is considered to be a high frequency antigen in the modern human population. Thus, a Neanderthal mother with partial RhD, Rhc, and Rhe phenotypes and sometimes RH:-18, carrying a Denisovan foetus expressing complete forms of RhD, Rhc and Rhe antigens and expressing the RH18 antigen, would have been prone to be immune to missing epitopes and synthesize anti-RhD, anti-Rhc, anti-Rhe and even anti-RH18 antibodies. These antibodies are known to have an important clinical significance in terms of HDFN [32]. These elements could have contributed to weakening the descendants to the point of leading to their demise especially combined with the competition with Homo sapiens for the same ecological niche [61]. Conclusions Analyses of blood group systems of Neanderthals and Denisovans contributed to a better understanding of their origin, expansion and encounters with Homo sapiens. Blood group profiles revealed polymorphism at the ABO locus, ancestral and African-origin alleles, and a RH haplotype presently secluded in Oceania, plausible relic of introgression events into modern humans prior their expansion towards Southeast Asia. An additional contribution is the reduced variability of many alleles and the possible presence of haemolytic disease of the foetus and new-born, which reinforces the notion of high inbreeding, weak demography and endangered reproductive success of the late Neanderthals, giving to our species the great opportunity to spread throughout the world.
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