Was the Maikop culture the PIE homeland?

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Was the Maikop culture the PIE homeland? Dec 3, 2021 19:28:41 GMT

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There was no genetic turnover to replace the Steppe inhabitants by the people coming from the south. There was also a genetic separation between the groups in the northern foothills and those groups of the bordering steppe regions in the north. However, some individuals buried in kurgans in the North Caucasian piedmont zone are more closely related to ancient individuals from regions further south in today’s Armenia, Georgia and Iran (Wang et al. 2019).

For instance, one sample (I6272) from Klady, Dlinnaya Polyna, carried G2a2a. I6268 from the same Northwest Caucasus site belonged to J2a1. The Klady cemetery is regarded as the most vivid example of the relationship between the European, Caucasian and Ancient East cultures in the Early Bronze Age, attributed to the Novosvobodnaya variant of the Maykop phenomenon and dated to the second half of the 4th millennium BCE. The Maykop phenomenon was the terminus of expanding Mesopotamian civilisations.

Klady and Dlinnaya Polyana, Russia
N 44.384896°, E 40.390285°
Excavation Institute for the Material Culture History, Russian Academy of Sciences, SaintPetersburg, (A.D. Rezepkin)
The Klady cemetery is located in the foothills area of the Northwest Caucasus near the village
Novosvobodnaya and includes about 40 kurgans of different sizes. The largest of them, the socalled ‘Silver Mound’ (mound 11) was about 12 m high and 120 m in diameter. The cemetery was excavated in 1898-99 (N.I. Veselovsky), 1979-1991 (A.D. Rezepkin) and in 2013-2017 (V.A. Trifonov)1.

In archaeology the Klady cemetery is regarded as the most vivid example of the relationship between the European, Caucasian and Ancient East cultures in the Early Bronze Age. Currently, the site is attributed to the Novosvobodnaya variant of the Maykopbphenomenon and dated to the second half of the 4th millennium BCE. All graves with human remains that have been sampled for DNA-analysis are published.

Four individuals produced genome-wide data:
• I6266, KLADY2, KLD89-11/22, kurgan 11, grave 22. The adult human skeleton was
found positioned on its left side in a crouched position and the head pointing SE,
accompanied by two ceramic pots typical for the Maykop-Novosvobodnaya variant, and
a flint flake. Dating: 3500-3000 BCE: Y-DNA hg J2a1
• I6267, KLADY4, KLD89-11/43, kurgan 11, grave 43. The burial was placed in a simple
rectangular pit with rounded corners (1,95 x 1,5 m). The adult human skeleton was
found positioned on its left side in crouched position with hands raised in front of the
face and head pointing south. The grave goods included three roe deer skulls
(Capreolus?), two ceramic pots typical for the Maykop-Novosvobodnaya variant, and
two bone pins. Dating: 3614-3362 calBCE (4675±70BP, OxA-5058)
• I6268, KLADY5, KLD89-11/50, kurgan 11, grave 50. The burial was placed in a simple
rectangular pit with rounded corners (2,3 x 1,4m). The adult human skeleton was found
positioned on its right side in a crouched position with hands raised in front of the face
and the head pointing SSW. The grave goods consisted of three ceramic pots typical for
the Maykop-Novosvobodnaya variant, and a broken hammer (?) made from antler.
Dating: 3692-3532 calBCE (4835±60 BP, OxA-5059): Y-DNA hg J2a1
• I6272, KLADY_DP, KLD89-DLP, Klady, Dlinnaya Polyna. The grave was found
under a small mound. The burial was placed in a shallow square pit (2,15 x 2 x 0,15m)
with floor and walls lined with pebbles. An adult human skeleton was found positioned
on its right side in a crouched position with hands raised in front of the abdominal cavity
and its head pointing south. The grave goods consist of two ceramic pots typical for the
Novosvobodnaya variant and a polished and shafted stone hammer. Dating: 3500-3000
BCE: Y-DNA hg G2a2a.

Kudachurt, Russia
N 43.354032°, E 43.721893°
Excavation ‘Institute of Archaeology of the Caucasus’, Nalchik 2004-2006
The flat cemetery of Kudachurt K14 is one of the rare cemeteries with heterogeneous burial
rites of the Bronze Age that has been excavated almost to full extent. The location of the site is
in the foothills of the northern flank of the Greater Caucasus, not far below where the river
Balkar Cherek flows out of a 600 m deep gorge. The environment is mid-altitude alpine forest
vegetation3. The final Middle and Late Bronze Age cemetery (ca. 2200-1650 calBCE) on the
right river terrace was part of a long-term rescue excavation due to the construction of a
hydrological station during which 219 burials were excavated, of which 130 date to the Bronze
Age. The other burials are associated with the Early Medieval Alanian population and belong
to a large agglomeration of fortified settlements and necropolises dating to the 1st century AD.
Interdisciplinary analyses of the Kudachurt cemetery are currently in preparation for
publication as part of the doctoral thesis of Katharina Fuchs, Kiel University33. The thesis
evaluates indicators of social inequality, oral health and diet with regard to socio-economic
issues during the key period of the Middle to Late Bronze Age transition in the piedmonts. Two
individuals of the final Middle Bronze Age horizon produced genome-wide data:
• KDC001.A0101.TF1 (BZNK-301/1), kurgan 14, grave 218.1/2, individual 218.1_3.
The complex was a catacomb grave with two layers of inhumations. The skeletons were
placed with their grave goods in crouched positions. A minimal number of eleven
individuals were found, four in the upper (218.1) and seven in the lower level (218.2).
Like the majority of burials at Kudachurt the grave contained ceramic vessels, animal
remains, a few bronze weapons and jewellery. Dating of the animal sample from layer
1: 1953-1776 calBCE (3548±23BP, MAMS-110560); dating of the animal sample from
layer 2: 1971-1777 calBCE (3554±23BP, MAMS-110561)
• KDC002.A0101.TF1 (BZNK-300/1), kurgan 14, grave 50, shallow and tight grave with
two ceramic vessels and animal remains. Dating of the animal sample: 1879-1692
calBCE (3456±25 BP, KUD14gshdl_050): Y-DNA hg J2b.

Unakozovskaya, Russia
N 44.255876°, E 40.201139°
Excavation Adygey Pedagoical University, 1985-90, (N. G. Lovpache)
The Unakozaovskaya caves belong to a series of Darkveti-Meshoko type of Eneolithic sites
which have been found in caves or below rock shelters in the valleys of the Northwest
Caucasian rivers45, 46. The environment today is a densely forested, but until the end of the
Middle Bronze Age (ca. 3500 calBP) the Northwest Caucasus was characterized by a very
different vegetation cover with open landscapes and much less forest. The anthropological
analysis of the skeletons by I. D. Potekhina does not mention an exact location47. The
considerable Eneolithic layers in the caves yielded material, chiefly ceramic, that can be
associated with the Drakveti-Meshoko formation, respectively the tradition of ‘pearlornamented ceramic’. The burial included one adult individual and three children, which were placed in crouched position, the heads covered by red ochre. Grave goods were stone bracelets, flint blades and bone objects. According to Potekhina the adult individual 1 was a male, about
60 years old. Individual 2a and 2b were children, placed in a crouched position on their backs
directly on top of each other. Individual 2a was about 5-6 years old, while individual 2b was a
sibling of 12-14 months. Individual 3 was probably 1-2 years old. All three Darkveti-Meshoko

Eneolithic children produced genome-wide data:
• I2055, skeleton 2a: 4680-4486 calBCE (5718±29BP, OxA-43740)：Y-DNA hg J
• I2056, skeleton 2b: 4599-4456 calBCE (5687±30BP, OxA-43741): Y-DNA hg J2a
• I1722, skeleton 3: 4536-4371 calBCE (5635±27BP, OxA-43742)

Marchenkova Gora 13, Russia
N 44.583183°, E 38.176667°
Excavation Institute for the Material Culture History, Russian Academy of Sciences, SaintPetersburg, 2003 (V. A. Trifonov)
The group of 14 dolmens at Marchenkova Gora is located in the mountainous area of the NW
Caucasus near Gelengik at the Black Sea coast. The site was explored in 2003 and 2007.
Dolmen 13 represents a collective megalithic tomb typical in the Western Caucasus, with a
characteristic entrance hole of 25 x 45 cm in diameter. This entrance enabled access to the burial
chamber for periodic interments and was closed by a stone plug. The burial chamber of the
dolmen contained human remains from about eight individuals of different ages and sexes. The
human remains were accompanied by pendants made from wild boar tusks and flint arrowheads.

One individual produced genome-wide data:
• I2051, MG13, MG-03 D-13, Marchenkova Gora, Dolmen 13. Dating: 1410-1210
calBCE (3045±80BP, Le-7053): Y-DNA hg J

Velikent, Russia
N 42.179802°, E 48.066089°
Excavation Russian-American excavation ‘Velikent’, 1994 and 1997, licence №1994-443, №
1997-3 (R. G. Magomedov)
The skeletal material stems from the partly destroyed collective catacomb grave 1 excavated in
1994 and 1995 at Kharman-Tepe (Velikent cemetery mound II) and dated to 4080±75BP, 2805-
2505 calBCE/2879-2474 calBCE)10, 23. Besides bronze artefacts a minimum of seven skulls
were documented. The samples analysed were labelled ‘individual 7’, albeit belonging to at
least to two different individuals.

Two individuals produced genome-wide data:
• VEK006.A0101.TF (BZNK-486/5): relative date 3000-2800 BCE
• VEK007.A0101.TF + VEK009.A0101.TF (BZNK-486/6;8): relative date 3000-2800
BCE; 2nd degree relative of VEK006: Y-DNA hg J

Sinyukha, Russia
N 44.692, E 40.042
Excavation Oriental Museum, Moscow 2013, licence №2012-853 (V. R. Erlikh)
The site of Sinykha is one of the most western ones in this study. It is located in the valley of
the river Belaya not far from the modern city of Maykop. This region is part of the piedmonts
and situated in the forest zone today. However, the Northwest Caucasus was much less densely
forested during the Bronze Age. Excavations in mound 1 were conducted in 2013 and revealed
a total of 12 interments, most of which were extremely poorly preserved43. The founding grave
1244, a Late Maykop context, contained three female individuals which produced genome-wide
data. The individuals are placed together side by side, individual 1 in the east, and individuals
2 and 3 closely together. Three ceramic vessels, a bronze pin and stone beads were found as
grave goods. This grave was surrounded by a stone circle of river pebbles found and covered
by a stone shell. Two more graves also contained late Maykop objects, another two date to the
Middle Bronze Age, and the last interment can be attributed to the Early Iron Age. Three related
individuals produced genome-wide data (Supplementary Information 3):
• SIJ001.A0101.TF1 (BZNK-277/1), kurgan 1, grave 12, individual 1, 3329-3022
calBCE (4454±23BP, MAMS-31139)
• SIJ002.A0101.TF1 (BZNK-278/1), kurgan 1, grave 12, individual 2, 3349-3033
calBCE (4490±35BP, GrA 57656) and 3346-3101 calBCE (4505±23BP, MAMS31141)
• SIJ003.A0101.TF1 (BZNK-279/1), kurgan 1, grave 12, individual 3, 3349-3033
calBCE (4490±35BP, GrA 57656) and 3347-3101 calBCE (4507±23BP, MAMS31142): Y-DNA hg L

Marinskaya 5, Russia
N43.905354°, E 43.521883°
Excavation Lomonosov Moscow State University, Institute of Archaeology RAS, ‘Nasledie’
2009, licence № 2009745 (A.R. Kantorovich), 2009-762 (V.Ye. Maslov)
The huge, single-standing burial mound Marinskaya 5, situated 2.3 km southwest of the mound
group Marinskaya 3 was excavated in 2009 by a team of the Lomonosov Moscow State
University, the Institute of Archaeology RAS and the local heritage organization ‘Nasledie’.
The kurgan is situated on the high terrace of the river Kura. The mound was slightly oval with
a diameter of 34 to 40 m and 4.3 m high. At a distance of 10-16 m a ditch of 1.5 m depth
surrounded the mound, which was detected on aerial images and excavated later. In the central
part of the mound, the excavations uncovered three mound-shells or construction phases dating
to the Early Bronze Age Maykop epoch and one that was constructed during the Middle Bronze
Age. The first constructive feature in the mound was the above-ground burial vault of grave 33,
surrounded by an oval fencing built from river pebbles. The first shell, an earth and stone
construction, was built directly on top of this construction. Two following early Maykop burials
32 and 34 were entrenched in the centre. The second mound-shell was associated with late
Maykop burials 12 and 16 and was added later. The third mound-shell was constructed after
the interment of late Maykop grave 25. These mound-shells were complex earthen
constructions and each was covered by a stone shell. All burials except grave 25 were situated
on top of each other in the centre of the mound. Grave 12 is dendrochronologically dated29, all
others inhumations are radiocarbon dated. The Maykop stratigraphy has recently been
published in Russian35. In several graves, among them late Maykop grave 25 and North
Caucasus graves 19, 23, 30/30a, paired cattle skulls were found. They place this site among one
of the earliest where the use of cattle as draught animals is documented in a chronological
sequence8. After a hiatus of 600 years, 18 graves (no. 3, 10, 13, 15, 17-24, 26-29, 30A, and 31)
dating to the North Caucasus cultural formation were added, including another mound shell.
Two graves (no. 4 and 14) dated to the Late Bronze Age/post-Catacomb epoch based on burial
practice and radiocarbon dates, and two nearly destroyed burials (no. 8 and 11) perhaps also
date to the Bronze Age. One catacomb grave, also dating to the local Middle Bronze Age,
intersected the ring of the North Caucasus graves and destroyed an earlier interment (no.
30/30A). During the Late Iron Age five additional graves were added in the centre of the mound.
which can be attributed to the Sarmatian epoch. Grave 1 can be associated with the Early Iron
Age of the late 8th to early 7th century BCE and the others (no. 2, 5, 6, 9) date to the early
Sarmatian epoch, i.e. the 3rd to 1st century BCE.
• MK5005.C0101.TF1 (BZNK-079/1), kurgan 1, grave 32, an early Maykop secondary
interment into the second mound-shell on top of the first burial. The grave was without
inventory but is according to the stratigraphy associated with the early Maykop
complexes. Dating: leather 3640-3370 calBCE (4720±25BP, UGAMS-13047); human
bone 3341-3098 calBCE (4496±26BP, MAMS-11212)
• MK5001.A0101.TF1+ B0101.TF1 (BZNK-065/5+3), kurgan 1, grave 12, a partly
disturbed Late Maykop inhumation slightly south of the centre with bronze weapons and
a ceramic vessel. The grave is dendrochronologically dated with an end date of 3279
BCE + 25 years for missing sapwood29. Dating of the skeleton: 3348-3035 calBCE
(4491±32BP, MAMS-110555): Y-DNA hg L
• MK5008.B0101.TF1 (BZNK-066/3), kurgan 1, grave 16, a Late Maykop inhumation in
the center of the mound with a wooden vessel(?). Dating: 3364-3107 calBCE
(4544±25BP, MAMS-29810)
• MK5004.A0101.TF1+D0101 (BZNK-073/4+2), kurgan 1, grave 25, which was a
disturbed Late Maykop inhumation burial in a square burial chamber. Bronze weapons,
a golden earring and a ceramic vessel remained from the inventory. Additionally, two
cattle skulls with bronze nose rings and the remains of a possible yoke were found in
situ outside the chamber. Dating of wood remains from the grave construction: 3347-
3095 calBCE (4498±30BP, MAMS-110554): Y-DNA hg L
• MK5009.A0101.TF1 (BZNK-064/2), kurgan 1, grave 10, a North Caucasus grave
inside a well preserved wooden massive construction in a deep grave shaft. The
inventory included a stone object and animal bones. This complex is likewise
dendrochronologically dated with an end date of 2644 BCE + 13 years uncertainty for
missing sapwood29. Dating of the skeleton: 2884-2636 calBCE (4175±31BP, MAMS110548)

Last Edit: Dec 5, 2021 21:21:42 GMT by Admin

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Was the Maikop culture the PIE homeland? Dec 3, 2021 22:22:28 GMT

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Post by Admin on Dec 3, 2021 22:22:28 GMT

Supplementary Note 1
Ecological and archaeological background of the Caucasus region
Ecological background
The mountain ranges of the Greater Caucasus and the southern Lesser Caucasus form a bridge
linking the mountainous zones of the Near East to Eurasia. The South Caucasus river systems
are connected to the upper Euphrates and Tigris drainage, and the mountain passes of the Great
Caucasus offer a number of passages to the steppe landscapes to the north. However, the most
important ecological demarcation is the interface of mountain and steppe ecozones in the North
Caucasian foothills, a mid-altitude zone of hills and narrow plateaus and the slightly hilly
piedmont steppe3. Intermediate biospheres, known as ecotones, which are micro-environmental
patches between larger vegetation zones, are characterized by higher biodiversity and provide
fodder-rich landscapes ideal for pastoralism but also for basic agriculture4. This demarcation
and the correlated ecotones fluctuated considerably during the Bronze Age. For instance, the 6
to 5 ky rapid climate change event placed Maykop sites in a much more steppe-like environment
than it is today, while the 4.2 ky event put a halt to the exploitation of the steppe zone for several
hundred years due to severe aridisation5. The ecological division separates mountain- and
steppe-based economies despite the fact that both used biologically highly diverse
environments with rich pastures ideal for mobile and semi-sedentary pastoralists, but which are
traditionally shared by groups practising such economies. At a local level, the Caucasus is
therefore characterized by a large variety of specific economic and social adaptations. These
are reflected in a large degree of cultural and linguistic diversity, and complex networks of
interaction within and between the Caucasus and the adjacent regions.

Archaeological background
The geographical dichotomy of the mountain and steppe-based economies in the Caucasus is
also reflected in the high diversity of archaeological cultural phenomena6, 7, 8. Our study
includes representatives of all major Bronze Age groups in the North Caucasus. They reflect
affiliations with either mountain-associated cultural groups such as the Darkveti-Meshoko
Eneolithic (4700-3500 calBCE)9, the Maykop phenomenon (3900-2900 calBCE)7, communities of a Northern variant of the Kura-Araxes culture (3600-2500 calBCE)10, the North Caucasian cultural formation or the mountain groups of the post-Catacomb grave horizon11, or to large-scale cultural phenomena of the steppe such as the Don-Kaspi Steppe Eneolithic (4300-4100 calBCE)12, the Yamnaya (3300-2600/2500 calBCE), the Catacomb cultural communities (2800-2200 calBCE)5 and the post-Catacomb Lola formation (2200-1700 calBCE)13. To represent the South Caucasus Kura-Araxes culture6 (3600-2500 calBCE), we also included
individuals from the Kaps site in present-day Armenia. Each of these formations is outlined by
particular sets of artefacts, settlement and burial practices, or adaptations to specific
environments. However, the chronological overlap of sites within the same territory, regional
variations in artefact spectra and a high frequency of elements crossing over blur the delineation
of clear cut ‘archaeological cultures’. Consequently, the applied terms must in their specific
time frames be understood as operational tools rather than social entities that represent uniform
and coherent peoples.
The significance of the Caucasus as a key study area is clearly visible in the current debate
about large-scale cultural interaction in the 4th and 3rd millennium BCE in Western Eurasia. The
impact of the archaeological cultures, which shaped this contact zone between the Near East
and Eurasia during the Bronze Age, on the widening of social networks that operated between
Mesopotamia, the Eurasian steppe and Europe is, however, still poorly understood14, 15.
Early Neolithic communities established a sedentary lifestyle with a Near Eastern set of
domesticates in the South Caucasus by 6000 calBCE16. They developed a sophisticated set of
settlements but kept to the floodplains of the major river drainages. Other Neolithic
communities in the West Caucasian lowlands and at the Black Sea coast or in the central
mountain valleys remained vague and might reflect local populations that selectively adopted
elements of the Neolithic package. Neolithic elements in the Lower Don area north of the
Caucasus and dating to the late 7th millennium BCE are disputed17 but might shed light on a
southern component in the development of cultural formations before the actual advent of the
Neolithic in the North Caucasus during the mid-5th millennium BCE.
The earliest attested evidence of the Neolithic lifestyle in the North Caucasus, including
domesticates and settlement architecture, datesto the mid-5th millennium BCE and is associated
with a cultural formation termed Darkveti-Meshoko Eneolithic9 or ‘pearl-ornamented ceramic’.
Sites associated with this phenomenon are situated on both flanks of the West Caucasian
Mountains and in all probability reflect groups advancing through the mountain passes from
the southern to the northern side of the mountains. This cultural phenomenon represents a rather
dispersed and flimsy settlement of the mountain zones. Some habitation sites were found under
rock shelters or in caves such as the site of Unakozovskaya, but large fortified settlements are
present as well. The settlers lived on agriculture, cattle herding and pig-rearing. Complementary
to the southern Eneolithic component, a northern component started to expand between 4300
and 4100 calBCE manifested in low burial mounds with inhumations densely packed in bright
red ochre. Burial sites of this type, like the investigated sites of Progress and Vonyuchka, are
found in the Don-Caspian steppe12, but they are related to a much larger supra-regional network
linking elites of the steppe zone between the Balkans and the Caspian Sea18. These groups
introduced the so-called kurgan, a specific type of burial monument, which soon spread across
the entire steppe zone.

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Was the Maikop culture the PIE homeland? Dec 4, 2021 3:22:23 GMT

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The Maykop ‘culture’ or cultural formation is the first Early Bronze Age culture in the
Caucasus. This enigmatic phenomenon exhibits the first gigantic burial mounds with splendid
‘royal’ tombs6, 7 containing exquisite burial gifts in gold, silver and bronze that reveal an entire
spectrum of technological innovations in metallurgy (among others). Maykop plays a key role
in the transfer of technological innovations and social alterations to the West. An increase in
sites, the expansion of territories, the enlargement of burial mounds as well as large groupings
of mounds in cemeteries indicate a prospering culture and population growth. The economy
seems to have been based on an agro-pastoral to pastoral subsistence with a focus on cattle
herding, but detailed economic data are largely missing. Judging by the artefact spectrum, the
early phase of this phenomenon appears closely linked to northern Mesopotamia19. A specific
component of the Maykop phenomenon is found in sites located in the modern steppe zone. We
refer to them here as Steppe Maykop (cf. 5). These burials share elements of mortuary practices
and artefacts with piedmont Maykop groups but at the same time reveal Eneolithic and
autonomous components from the steppe. Both Maykop-related phenomena develop in parallel.
The Maykop individuals in the present study come from a variety of sites related to both Steppe
and piedmont and date to an earlier (3900-3500 calBCE) and later chronological phase (3500-
2900 calBCE), respectively. A more detailed chronology can be found in the cited literature.
Some sites in the steppe-zone might be affected by a radiocarbon reservoir effect20, but even a
correction of 100-150 would still render them contemporaneous to the groups in the piedmont
zone. The earlier individuals are labelled ‘Maykop’, ‘Steppe Maykop’ and come from sites like
Nogir, Klady and Marinskaya 5 in the piedmont and foothill zone, as well as individuals from
Aygursky 2 and Sharakhalsun 6 in the steppe zone. The later Maykop phase, labelled ‘Late
Maykop’ or ‘Maykop-Novosvobodnaya’, is represented by western sites such as Klady or
Sinyukha, Baksanyonok and Marinskaya 5 in the central piedmonts, and Ipatovo in the steppe
zone.
Technological innovations culminate during the advanced stage of Maykop and include
evidence of wheeled transport and related technologies8, high-quality textiles including wool21,
and a technically advanced metallurgy22. Imports such as lapis lazuli and turquois from
Afghanistan showcase the extensive range of the exchange-network the Maykop communities
participated in. With the exception of writing, the use of iconographic seals, or monumental
domestic architecture, the technical innovations of the 4th millennium BCE seen in the Near
East can also be found in the Caucasus.
Contemporaneous with the later Maykop phase, the first Yamnaya complexes are present in the
steppe zone shortly after 3300 calBCE. The two Yamnaya individuals from the Rasshevatskiy
1 site establish a framework of dates for the Yamnaya in our study area, while somewhat
younger dates have been reported from the Caspian steppe5. Yamnaya interments of the South
Russian and North Caucasus plain share specific burial practices with other regional variants
of this far-reaching supra-regional cultural network. They differ however in the quantity of
burial goods they use. Complete or dismantled wooden wagons are frequently found in
Yamnaya and related graves. Like those from the Volga region, the North Caucasian steppe
complexes belong to the earliest representatives of the Yamnaya phenomenon in the Eurasian
steppe. Stable isotope and palynological evidence argue for a mobile lifestyle based on
pastoralism for these groups, but with rather limited mobility radii.

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Was the Maikop culture the PIE homeland? Dec 4, 2021 4:36:38 GMT

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The Velikent site at the coast of the Caspian Sea is a representative for a northern variant of the
Kura-Araxes culture, although it is considerably different from the primary variant, which
warrants its own Early Bronze Age designation (3300-2400/2200 calBCE). The site is over 30
ha in size and is comprised of several settlement and cemetery mounds10, 23. Velikent and related
sites are important for this study as they represent comprehensive agro-pastoral economies.
The Caucasian Middle Bronze Age is represented by the Catacomb grave formation (2800-
2200 calBCE) mostly found in the steppe and by the North Caucasian cultural groups (2800-
2400 calBCE) and Catacomb culture in the piedmont zone. Both represent economies that were
based on mobile pastoralism. The first is one of several variants of the supra-regional Catacomb
grave phenomenon, which split into even smaller regional components in the North Caucasus
and the Caspian steppe. With the Catacomb horizon, the number of mounds and burials
increases exponentially in the steppe. The North Caucasian formation in the piedmont and
mountain zone likewise witness a fragmentation into smaller regional units with a rather
heterogeneous artefact spectrum. However, the occupation of all ecological niches including
the various steppe zones as well as the high mountains indicates, like in the Catacomb area, a
considerable intensification of human activity. In particular, the mountain groups must have
intensified mining as well, since burials dating to this period frequently contain metal artefacts,
e.g. the complex of Lysogorskaya 6 in this study. After 2400 calBCE, Catacomb complexes
first overlap with those of the North Caucasian groups and then seem to replace them.
The climatic deterioration of the 4.2 ky event led to a dissolution of both the Catacomb and the
North Caucasian cultural formations, replacing them in the steppe and piedmont steppe by
cultures of the post-Catacomb horizon or Late Bronze Age 1 (2200-1700 calBCE)
13. The number of sites decreases rapidly. By 1700 calBCE the steppe including the zones directly at
the foothills of the mountains are abandoned. Interments like those of Rasshevatskiy 4 and
Nevinnomyskiy represent some of the late Bronze Age complexes. However, the mountain
communities reorganized themselves in a final stage of North Caucasian traditions, as seen in
complexes from Kabardinka or Kudachurt. These paved the way for a renewed intensification
of a semi-mobile pastoral economy at high altitudes, which peaked as a highly efficient
combined mountain agricultural system during the Late Bronze Age 2 (1700-1100/1000
calBCE)24.

Last Edit: Dec 4, 2021 20:51:54 GMT by Admin

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Was the Maikop culture the PIE homeland? Dec 4, 2021 20:47:59 GMT

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Post by Admin on Dec 4, 2021 20:47:59 GMT


Supplementary Table 23: Numbers of reads mapped on X chromosome or Y chromosome
versus the autosomes and Y-haplogroup typings.
Nseqs: the total number of reads mapped on the human reference genome.
Sample Nseqs xCov/
autCov
yCov/
autCov
Sex Y haplogroup
ARM001.A0101 2809801 0.7581 0.0090 Female -
ARM002.A0101 4192423 0.3632 0.5074 Male G2b
ARM003.A0101 4004409 0.3638 0.5096 Male G2b
AY2001.A0101 9141500 0.7028 0.0103 Female -
AY2003.A0101 6390930 0.6990 0.0101 Female -
BU2001.A0101 839079 0.3700 0.5023 Male R1b1a2a2
GW1001.A0101 3048224 0.3192 0.4830 Male R1b1a2a2
IV3002.A0101 787369 0.3717 0.4531 Male ?
KBD001.A0101 6270235 0.3636 0.5348 Male R1b1a2
KBD001.B0101 7255204 0.3580 0.5005 Male R1b1a2 independent replicate of KBD001.A0101
KBD002.A0101 6414457 0.7109 0.0163 Female -
KDC001.A0101 5303973 0.3572 0.6167 Male J2b
KDC002.A0101 3696144 0.6972 0.0058 Female -
LYG001.A0101 2696989 0.3427 0.4518 Male R1b1a2
MK3003.A0101 2393147 0.7391 0.0061 Female -
MK5001.A0101 2810302 0.3517 0.5076 Male L
MK5001.B0101 1678751 0.3628 0.4801 Male L independent replicate of MK5001.A0101
MK5004.A0101 5088083 0.3487 0.5254 Male L
MK5004.D0101 2229129 0.3657 0.4493 Male L independent replicate of MK5004.A0101
MK5005.C0101 360284 0.7318 0.0100 Female -
MK5007.B0101 3810 0.3649 0.2617 Male ?
MK5008.B0101 160876 0.3858 0.4920 Male ?
MK5009.A0101 1595419 0.3760 0.4413 Male R1b1a2
MK5012.A0101 42251 0.3734 0.3966 Male ?
NV3001.A0101 4792208 0.3529 0.5151 Male Q1a2
NV3001.B0101 1901486 0.3671 0.5310 Male Q1a2 independent replicate of NV3001.A0101
OSS001.A0101 1678590 0.7339 0.0102 Female -
OSS002.B0101 211342 0.4107 0.4484 Male J
PG2001.B0101 4746096 0.3751 0.4840 Male R1b1
PG2001.B0201 3940122 0.3601 0.4985 Male R1b1 independent replicate of PG2001.B0101
PG2002.A0101 970812 0.7579 0.0062 Female -
PG2004.A0101 4990081 0.3631 0.4915 Male R1b1
PG2004.C0101 2876965 0.3619 0.4793 Male R1b1 independent replicate of PG2004.A0101
RK1001.C0101 4945393 0.3177 0.4435 Male R1b1a2
RK1003.C0101 463135 0.7233 0.0087 Female -
RK1007.A0101 509895 0.7375 0.0099 Female -
RK4001.A0101 2513859 0.3525 0.4741 Male R1b1a2
RK4002.B0101 3161001 0.3662 0.4834 Male R1b1a2
SA6001.A0101 6979281 0.6900 0.0144 Female -
SA6002.A0101 5684148 0.6912 0.0101 Female -
SA6003.B0101 1387568 0.3703 0.4389 Male R1b1a2
SA6004.A0101 5436082 0.3511 0.3897 Male Q1a2
SA6004.B0101 1257786 0.3462 0.4854 Male Q1a2 independent replicate of SA6004.A0101
SA6010.A0101 1139408 0.3631 0.4484 Male ?
SA6013.B0101 1753402 0.3723 0.4230 Male R1
SIJ002.A0101 5726979 0.3464 0.5820 Male L
SIJ003.A0101 4934680 0.7279 0.0084 Female -
VEK006.A0101 598647 0.7295 0.0040 Female -
VEK007.A0101 1552864 0.4009 0.4473 Male J
VEK008.A0101 34601 0.4110 0.3429 Male ?
VEK009.A0101 1031812 0.3757 0.4305 Male J1
VJ1001.B0101 2719429 0.7505 0.0049 Female -
VJ1001.D0101 3109023 0.7380 0.0052 Female - independent replicate of VJ1001.B0101
ZO2002.C0101 2191544 0.7108 0.0071 Female -
I1722 658099 0.7132 0.0120 Female -
I2055 543337 0.3606 0.4647 Male J
I2056 4020874 0.4057 0.4768 Male J2a
I1720 134524 0.3870 0.4308 Male ?
I1723 200416 0.3939 0.4823 Male ?
I2051 337887 0.3586 0.4328 Male J
I6266 1974285 0.4160 0.4926 Male J2a1
I6267 537729 0.8006 0.0161 Female -
I6268 1091304 0.4058 0.4845 Male J2a1
I6270 15010 0.4126 0.4548 Male ?
I6272 1513390 0.4148 0.4876 Male G2a2a
I2057 37124 0.7210 0.1235 undetermined intermediate sex

Y chromosome haplogroup determination
For the male individuals, we determined Y-chromosome haplogroups by identifying the most
derived allele upstream and the most ancestral allele downstream in the phylogenetic tree in the
ISOGG version 11.89 (accessed March 31, 2016) (http://www.isogg.org/tree). If the most
derived Y chromosome SNP upstream was a C->T or G->A substitution (susceptible to ancient
DNA damage), we required as least two derived SNPs to assign it to the haplogroup (otherwise,
we assigned it to the upstream haplogroup).
ARM002.A0101 could be assigned as G2b based on Z8017: A->G, M3115: G->T, PF5721: G-
>A, and Z8020: C->T. This individual also has multiple upstream mutations for haplogroup
G2: F744: G->A, PF2787: C->T, Z3100: C->G, M3469: G->T, L89: C->T, M3480: T->A,
F1189: A->G, F1239: C->T, F1294: T->A, M3491: A->G, PF2912: T->G, Z6023: C->T,
CTS1868: G->A, CTS4413: T->C, CTS4703: C->T, CTS10089: G->A, M3579: A->G, F3198:
G->T, M3585: G->A, PF3119: G->T, F3536: C->T, Z6474: T->C.
ARM003.A0101 could be assigned as G2b based on Z8017: A->G and M3145: A->G. This
individual also has multiple upstream mutations for haplogroup G2: F744: G->A, PF2787: C-
>T, Z3060: G->C, PF2792: A->G, PF2797: C->T, M3480: T->A, F1189: A->G, F1239: C->T,
F1294: T->A, F1393: G->A, M3491: A->G, Z6023: C->T, CTS1900: T->A, CTS4136: G->A,
CTS4413: T->C, F2319: A->T, CTS6742: G->C, CTS7662: C->T, CTS10089: G->A, M3579:
A->G, F3198: G->T, M3585: G->A, P287: G->T, F3536: C->T, Z6474: T->C.
BU2001.A0101 could be assigned as R1b1a2a2 based on Z2105: C->A. This individual also
has three upstream mutations for haplogroup R1b1a2: PF6430: T->A, PF6432: C->A, PF6438:
C->T and three upstream mutations for haplogroup R1: P242: G->A, P238: G->A, P236: C-
>G.
GW1001.A0101 could be assigned as R1b1a2a2 based on the mutation Z2105: C->A. This
individual also has three upstream mutations for haplogroup R1b1a2: PF6399: C->T, PF6430:
T->A, PF6434: A->G, PF6438: C->T, L150.1: C->T, PF6475: C->A, PF6482: A->G, PF6509:
A->G, CTS11468: T->G.
KBD001 could be assigned as R1b1a2 based on the mutations: PF6399:C->T, M520:T->A,
L773:A->G, PF6430:T->A, L265:A->G, L483:C->T, PF6434:A->G, PF6438:C->T, L150.1:C-
>T, PF6475:C->A, CTS8728:C->T, L500:C->A, PF6482:A->G, PF6495:G->A, PF6497:C-
>G, PF6505:G->A, M269:T->C, CTS12478:G->A. We note that this individual also has a
downstream mutation L23: G->A determining haplogroup R1b1a2a, but this mutation might be
caused by ancient DNA damage.
KDC001.A0101 could be assigned as J2b based on the mutations: L282: C->T, M12: G->T,
M221: G->A, and M314: A->C. This individual also has multiple upstream mutations for
haplogroup J: CTS687:A->T, CTS852:G->A, PF4505:T->C, CTS1250:G->T, PF4513:C->T,
F1167:G->A, F1168:G->A, F1181:G->C, PF4519:C->G, PF4521:T->C, PF4524:G->A,
FGC1604:G->A, FGC3271:G->A, FGC1609:C->G, PF4530:C->T, F1744:G->A, F1826:G-
>A, CTS3872:G->A, CTS4204:G->A, CTS4349:G->A, F2114:G->A, CTS5628:C->G,
CTS5934:C->T, CTS7229:C->A, F2502:G->A, S19861:T->A, CTS7738:T->C, CTS7832:A-
>G, F2769:G->C, F2839:C->T, CTS9877:A->G, P209:T->C, F2973:C->T, CTS10446:G->C,
F3119:C->T, F4299:T->A, S22619:C->A, F4300:T->A, F3138:G->A, PF4591:C->A,
F3176:T->C, PF4594:C->A, PF4595:C->A, FGC1599:A->T, Z7829:G->C, F3347:C->T,
M304:A->C, CTS11291:G->T, L778:T->C, CTS11571:C->A, CTS11750:C->T,
CTS12047:A->G.

Last Edit: Dec 5, 2021 20:06:28 GMT by Admin